ANDREW SAWYER

America's Entrance into The Great War

The House of Morgan acted as sales agent for England and France’s bonds and purchasing agent for war materials. But the U-boats destroyed the shipping lanes. The U.S. government had to provide the money to save the British Empire, but treaty did not allow that unless the U.S. got into the war. What would J.P. Morgan suffer if those bonds went into default if France and England were defeated by Germany?

Morgan also had a monopoly on the ocean liners, except the Cunard Lines which owned Lusitania. The Lusitania had been built to military specifications. Colonel House was in England at the time of the sinking and wrote in his diary the answer to a question from Sir Edward Grey asking “What will America do if the Germans sink an ocean liner with American passengers on board?” Colonel House said, “I told him if this were done, a flame of indignation would sweep America, which would in itself probably carry us into the war.”

Churchill would order the Lusitania to travel on three of its four smoke stacks to save coal. This reduction of speed from 24 to 21 knots made a ship more vulnerable to torpedo. Churchill ordered a destroyer, Juno, to meet with Lusitania off Ireland coast. It was then ordered back to Queenstown. The Lusitania captain assumed they missed it. Officers were inside the map room with Churchill when it was sunk. Churchill had previously asked Commander Joseph Kenworthy to submit a paper of what would b e the political result of an ocean liner being sunk with American passengers? In his 1927 book, Kenworthy wrote, “The Lusitania was sent at considerably reduced speed into an area where a U-boat was known to be waiting and with her escorts withdrawn.”

So why did Germany want to sink it? That had to do with the 600 tons of pyroxyline (gun cotton), 6-million rounds of ammunition, and 1,200 cases of shrapnel shells, all of which was in violation of international neutrality treaties. How did Germany know it? Munitions were public knowledge through the custom house. Churchill knew it, and so did Wilson. Larson did not mention but one or two sentences about this, however. The best you will read is from Edward Griffin, The Creature from Jekyll Island: A Second Look at the Federal Reserve. But the controversy was ended in 2008 when divers to the Lusitania entered the hull and found an estimated 4 million rounds of Remington .303 bullets.

February 9, 2026 - #28 Thomas Woodrow Wilson

Our 28^th president would be the last Virginia-born, the second to be a citizen of both the United States and Confederate States of America, the second intellectual, and only second Democrat elected president since 1856! Wilson, another decent of Sottish-Irish, first ivy-league school president to become president, was elected because of a rogue, third-party bid, then lead his country into the greatest war the world had known. One of the greatest movers of men, he would draft 14 points of peace and lead these talks in France and still play more rounds of golf at the White House than any other president. His defense of the Treaty of Versailles would become the death of his political career.

Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born in 1856 in Straunton, Virginia to a Presbyterian pastor, Reverend Joseph Wilson and Janet Woodrow Wilson. Both his parents came from Scottish-Irish heritage. His father would soon move the family to Augusta, GA – the first of four Southern cities where Thomas would be raised. His first memory would be hearing Abraham Lincoln was elected president and the subsequent fear of war that brought. The Civil War would not come close to his Augusta home, but seeing the devastation of the war around him, Reconstruction in the South, would shape his ideas of war.

In 1875, he began his life venture into the intellectual spear of higher education, enrolling at the College of New Jersey, in Princeton, NJ. Wilson masters a new invention called a typewriter and ends up writing books on US government including A History of the American People and a biography of Georgie Washington. After graduating in 1879, Wilson would attend law school at University of Virginia. He was a very slow reader, but overcame this by memorizing every word on a page. He developed a photographic memory!

In 1882, he moved to Atlanta to practice law. He never enjoyed Atlanta and was not a good lawyer. But in 183, Wilson did some legal work in Rome, GA where he met Ellen Axson, a Presbyterian minister’s daughter. Wilson would propose to marry her before leaving for graduate school at John’s Hopkins University. After marrying in 1885, Wilson accepted two teaching jobs: one at Bryn Mawr College, a women’s college and the next at Wesleyan University in 1889.

Professor Wilson

In 1890, Professor Wilson accepted a teaching position at the College of New Jersey becoming their most popular professor on campus! He also became a great speaker. In 1896, the 150-year-old College of New Jersey became Princeton University, and Wilson would be named its Sesquicentennial orator. The family embraces the life of academia. In 1902, Wilson would become Princeton’s 13^th President. Ellen, Woodrow and their three daughters would live in the president’s mansion called Prospect. He would write Ellen many love letters from the time of their marriage. In 1895, he wrote:

“I am madly in love with you. Area you prepared for the storm of love making with which you will be assailed?”

Wilson strengthened Princeton’s character as a university. He would also discover the reality of politics where Dean of the Graduate School, Andrew West and his closest friend John Hibben would oppose one or another of Wilson’s views on democratizing the college with residential quadrangles. Wilson’s stubborn, Scottish-Irish, personality would show its face as he befriended his best friend from that moment.

In 1906, Wilson’s cigarette smoke and scotch drinking brought on a stroke that would change his life. He would lose vision in his left and his personality become more critical and aloof.

An intriguing part of Wilson’s life was a relationship he had - during his time as President of Princeton - with a lady named Mary Allen Hulbert Peck. He met her in Bermuda, where he would vacation to leave the stress of office. Mary essentially became someone Wilson would vent. Most of this was occured through letters. Even more awkward was that Mary was twice married. And though there is reason to believe an affair, there never was an affair proven. It was known that Ellen gave her blessing to their correspondence. As their relationship became known to public, Wilson eventually stepped back from Mary. Personally, I think it was not planned and their relationship happened. The matter of an affair is still conjecture today. Mary burned all of their letter before her death in 1939!

A Run for President

In 1908, Wilson wanted to leave Princeton and run for president. This did not work out. But New Jersey Democratic Party boss James Smith, Jr sees an opportunity. After elected as New Jersey Governor, Smith expected Wilson to serve as puppet, but instead, Wilson dismantled the New Jersey party machine and brought in the most progressive state laws in the nation. As a great speaker, Wilson was able to campaign for his own policies, which made him an eye for President. Wilson served as governor for one year, then allowed others to promote his presidential candidacy.

The Election of 1912 would be unique since the Democrats would not start out with a planned candidate. By this time, William Jennings Bryan has run three times and lost! The Republicans would finally become split because of Teddy Roosevelt’s split with President Taft. The Old Guard Republicans thwarted Roosevelt’s attempt for nomination. Angered Roosevelt began his own party of progressives called the Bull Moose Party. The New Jersey Governor had a small group of men who backed him, but none more important the Colonel Edward Mandell House of Texas. Wilson would receive the Democratic nomination. With the vote split between the Republicans, Wilson would become the second Democrat President since James Buchanan!

“There has been a change of government.”

On the day Wilson is sworn in, Taft would remark a memorable anecdote of his time, “This is the loneliest place in the world.” There are important names to know as Wilson begins his eight-year presidential run. Joseph Tumulty, a New Jersey Representative, Dr. Cary Grayson, his personal and longtime physician, Edward ‘Colonel’ House, the closes advisor to Wilson would come to be the highest unelected influence to a president and last, Edith Boling Gault. After the Wilson family moved into the White House, Ellen slipped and fell hard onto the White House floor. Renal failure began inside her body. On August 6, 1914, Wilson’s spouse of 29 years dies from Bright’s disease, the same ailment that killed Chester Arthur. Wilson would write to Mary, “God has stricken me beyond what I can bear.”

Sinking of the Lusitania

Before reading this biography, I thought of World War I when I thought of Wilson. What was Wilson’s role in the Great War? Germany invaded Belgium two days before Ellen died. Great Britain defended her allies. Wilson and most of America wanted no part in the war. It was not difficult for Wilson to take this position until May 7, 1915 when Schwieger unleashed the torpedo from the German U-boat named U-20 that would sink the Lusitania, killing 123 Americans of 1,195 killed. In Erik Larson’s book, Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania, Larson details the perspective of Schwieger who only shot one torpedo. Survivors noted only seeing one torpedo in the water. Why, then, were there two explosions?

The Kaiser refused to apologize, and America is angry as action is now demanded. Wilson sends another letter to Germany with threatening language. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan now resigns fearing war. Bryan also shows Congress a printed warning from the German Embassy concerning ship line travel during a state or war. It was mostly withheld as one newspaper printed it. Germany says nothing publicly but slows down attacks – until they sink the French, Sussex, in March 24, 1916. Congress passed the National Defense Act in June increasing the size of the Army and National Guard. Wilson will run for president on the slogan,

“He Kept Us Out of War.”

In November, he defeats New York governor Charles Evans Hughes by one of the closest Electoral College margins of 277 – 254. He won the popular vote 49.2% to 46.1%.

At Shadow Lawn in Long Branch, NJ, Wilson received notification of his re-nomination for president in September of 1916. Far left below Wilson is Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt.

By this time, Wilson had met and fallen in love with Edith Bolling Galt. Wilson was 58 and she was 43. But advisors wanted it kept quiet since he was running for re-election. All the while turbulence continues in America. The Ku Klux Klan was resurging during Wilson’s administration in Georgia. The U.S. invaded Mexico to capture Pancho Villa. The U-boats, however, continued their destruction. Wilson, who is hailed by historians as a great mover of men, was at this time, moved by men – especially Colonel House. The House of Morgan acted as sales agent for England and France’s bonds and purchasing agent for war materials. But the U-boats destroyed the shipping lanes. The U.S. government had to provide the money to save the British Empire, but treaty did not allow that unless the U.S. got into the war. What would J.P. Morgan suffer if those bonds went into default if France and England were defeated by Germany?

Treaty of Versailles

December of 1918, President Wilson would sail on the George Washington to France in an attempt to settle the peace. He was with Colonel House, Secretary of State Lansing, Ambassador Henry White and Gen Tasker H. Bliss. They met with France’s Premier Georges Clemenceau, Great Britain Prime Minister, David Lloyd George and Italy’s Prime Minister Vittoria Orlando along with representatives from nearly every population of the world. This task would prove difficult for Wilson, as he fought for peace based on his Fourteen Points. After Wilson missed meetings due to persistent headaches, he found out Colonel House made moves of his own - against Wilson's will. Wilson had to re-negotiate everything.

The Treaty would be signed on June 28, 1919 after six months of negotiating. His relationship with Colonel House would be forever severed. The Treaty would now come home to the U.S. Senate. If working in Europe was hard, the U.S. Senate would be much worse. Henry Cabot Lodge and Republicans had a plan to sabotage the treaty before it was even signed by the US. Lodge would become Wilson’s greatest nemesis. The Republicans who Wilson and Lansing considered to vote against became known as the 'Reservationists'. In September of 1919, Wilson decided to take the issue to the people.

Tale of two photos of Wilson in his car. Colonel House with him before Versailles, and an empty seat after. Only Dr. Grayson would remain close to Wilson through his presidency.

The First Woman President

He started a cross-country tour, despite major headaches, where he would speak to crowds of thousands promoting the Treaty and League of Nations. After a speech in Pueblo, CO, Wilson was sitting on his bed with a severe headache. After calling on Dr. Grayson, it was decided that he would return to D.C. The media knew this, but did not know his health. Back at the White House, Edith helped him to the bathroom one night. His head was still in severe pain. She asked Woodrow is he wanted her to get Dr. Grayson. He said yes, and she left his side, went down the hall, and phoned Ike Hoover from the hallway phone. She heard a noise from the bathroom and found her husband on the floor unconscious. Wilson had suffered his third stroke. He woke up unable to feel his left side.

A greatest conspiracy from the Executive office occurred in the next 18 months as Edith, Dr. Grayson and Tumulty ran the country. No one knew that Wilson was immobilized. His ability to think and speak was still there, but he could not move. Edith would determine who and if someone who called on Wilson could see him. She controlled every aspect of his life during this time. For six months, Wilson would not have a cabinet meeting. Throughout this whole process, Wilson’s resolve would strengthen. Secretly, Tumulty hoped that Wilson would compromise over Article 10, but he would never say it publicly. Lodge and Republicans offered compromise, but Wilson never would. The vote for the Treaty would be defeated by all the Reservationists Republicans and half of the Democrats who did not remain loyal to Wilson. 

Lame Duck

After the vote, Wilson became a definitive lame duck. He would learn that while immobile, his Attorney General A. Mitchel Palmer would work with a man at the Bureau of Investigation named Edgar Hoover to manipulate Federal law and use against anyone suspected in being a Red, meaning Bolshevick or Communist. “We have no authority to do that under the law,” Wilson said. He was against communism is every way, but not any miscarriage of justice. Wilson would learn of their shenanigan’s months after his stroke.

To continue, Wilson had the opportunity to pardon communist, Eugene V. Debs, who had served prison for a year and health declining. He told Tumulty, “I will never consent to the pardon of this man.” I applaud Wilson for taking this stance:

“I know that in certain quarter of the country there is a popular demand for the pardon of Debs, but it shall never be accomplished with my consent… While the flower of American youth was pouring out its blood to vindicate the cause of civilization, this man, Debs, stood behind the lines, sniping, attacking, and denouncing them. Before the war he had a perfect right to exercise his freedom of speech and to express his own opinion, but once the Congress of the United States declared war, silence on his part would have been the proper course to pursue.”

Wilson would get to see the 19^th Amendment to the Constitution ratified on August 18, 1920. Though he initially believed women should obtain the right to vote through state legislation only, he became more sensitive to them after The Great War had revisited their role in society. Wilson lobbied state legislatures to ratify the amendment for 14 months since the proposal passed both houses of Congress. The tally was stuck on 35 approvals until the Tennessee House of Representatives came through. Anyone over the age of 21 would vote in the 1920 election.

October 29, 2025 - #27 William Howard Taft

Our 27^th president would be the first to travel without horse and buggy as president, and work in the newly named Oval Office. He would gain so much weight that a new bath tub would be brought in for him to bathe. He would also introduce both the First Pitch and Seventh Inning Stretch to baseball. He would end his life as the only president to serve on the Supreme Court and be buried at Arlington Cemetery.

The first Taft to settle in America was Robert Taft in Braintree, MA in 1678. He emigrated from England. His original name was likely Toft or Taffe, which could have been Scotch or Irish. William H. Taft was born in 1857 and grew up in Cincinnati Ohio where his father, Alphonso was a lawyer. Alphonso Taft had also served as secretary of war under Ulysses Grant! In 1874, Taft went to attend college at Yale. He would become assistant prosecuting attorney of Hamilton County, Ohio is 1881. He would hold public office until becoming president in 1908.

As a Federal Circuit Judge in 1890, a prominent case he judged was Moore’s & Co. v. Bricklayers’ Union, where Taft would go into old English law and use precedents to show that the Cincinnati bricklayers had maliciously damaged the business of Moores & Company. “Every man, be he capitalist, merchant, employer, laborer or professional and entitled to invest his capital, to carry on his business… if within the law, according to his pleasure. Generally speaking, if, in the exercise of such a right by one, another suffers a loss, he has no ground of action…” This was used against Taft before he was nominated president. He believed the boycott in labor disputes to be illegal.

In The Life and Times of William Howard Taft: A Biography, author Henry F. Pringle shares Taft’s life acknowledging Taft’s lack of interest in America’s high office:

“Don’t sit up nights thinking about making me President for that will never come and I have no ambition in that direction. Any party that would nominate me would make a great mistake.”

As he moved closer to politics, he felt that the Democrats were more reprehensible than the Republicans. They were the party of discontent. The people of the West, who followed William Jennings Bryan, could not pay their debts. After Cleveland repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1892, which gave unrestricted coinage of silver and grained America of gold, the farmer could not sell his crops and the city man could not sell his labor. 1896 became Gold v. Silver, which was a fight between the privileged few and impoverished many. In 1894, Supreme Court ruled that Federal Income tax was unconstitutional.

In 1886, the very tall and handsome William Howard Taft would marry Helen Herron (“Nellie”) of Cincinnati, Ohio. Nellie was very ambitious woman who was highly educated and intelligent.

Taft made himself popular with his ability to bring order out of chaos, in Philippines, Japan and Cuba. In 1900, he was appointed president of the Second Philippine Commission. This Philippine Commission would end up being a major impact on his personal and political life. After the U.S. won the Spanish-American War, the spoils of the war fell into the hands of the United States, including Philippines. The difficult part was managing the insurgents in their country lead by Aguinaldo, who continued to resist U.S. military government control. Taft was actually put in place of the military Governor as the new civil governor. He had to manage the discontent between that arrangement as well as the insurgents. While living in the Malacañan Palace, Taft won over the people from his unbiased, caring personality. He helped infrastructure, set up local municipalities. 

Taft’s convictions were very strong; he had strong character. This was evident during his Philippine appointment when President McKinley offered to Taft what Taft wanted most: A position on the Supreme Court! Proving his lack of desire for political gain, Taft remarkably turned it down due to his commitment to the Philippine people.

When Roosevelt became president, Taft accepted the position of Secretary of War. Roosevelt saw a lot in Taft during this time. This would come after two appointments to the Philippines, in which he finally left. As Secretary of War, Taft was sent to visit the Panama Canal construction by TR to oversee progress. He accomplished his job in the Roosevelt administration with such approval that he would not escape another request for the ticket.

Taft and Nellie would be asked by Roosevelt and Edith for a meeting at the newly termed White House. It is well agreed that without the nudge from his wife Nellie, Taft would have not accepted the nomination for the 1908 Republican ticket. Roosevelt hand-picked his successor as he enjoyed great popularity with the people. Roosevelt and Taft had become close in the business government and personal friendship. A book documenting their individual lives personal relationship is The Bully Pulpit: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Golden Age of Journalism by Doris Kearns Goodwin. 

As a candidate, he wrote a credo of his faith in a 1907 letter:

“I am a member of President Roosevelt’s Cabinet. I agree heartily and earnestly in the policies which have come to be known as the Roosevelt policies. Those policies, stated succinctly, are that the guaranties of the Constitution shall be in favor of life, liberty and property and shall be sacredly maintained; that the guaranty with respect to the right of property would be undermined by a movement toward socialism; that this movement has gained force the use of accumulate wealth and power in illegal ways and duress to suppress competitions a center financial control in a few hands…”

He did support an amendment to the Constitution for an income tax. Taft believed firmly that Tariff rates should not be greater than cost of production. Tariffs were the only weakness for Republicans. He agreed with Roosevelt’s control of railroad through ICC and that ICC should have power to fix maximum rates, but only after review of courts. He believed it was not possible for companies “to carry on a business as economically and with the same production of profit by a government as it is under the motive of private gain.”

Taft would face William Jennings Bryan, running for a third time. Taft would barely win the popular vote by 51.5%, but the Electoral College is a greater 321 – 162 over Bryan.

This photo of Taft's family was taken in 1904 when they lived on K Street in Washington, before his election to president. Taft's oldest son, Robert, would be away at Yale. Helen attends Bryn Mawr outside Philadelphia. 11-year-old Charlie and Roosevelt's son, Quentin, would become very good friends.

The President

Taft is sworn in as President on March 4, 1909. He had a good start with a surplus of $13 million instead of the $40 million deficit which was predicted in 1910. A lot of this came from the Payne-Aldrich Act. In 1911 with Republicans in control of Congress, Taft appointed a Commission on Efficiency and Economy to obtain inquiry into expenditures. Sound familiar? The duty of the commission was “to find out exactly how the government of the US was organized in each of its various branches.” By this time, nobody actually knew how the US government was organized or what it was doing! His team of represented a variety of background, few actually supported Taft politically! “No question was asked about politics until about a year afterward when … I was amused to find that all except one held political views contrary to my own.”

Nellie would be the first First Lady to ride with the president to the White House. She got rid of the horse and buggy and wanted to ride in a car instead. Two months after Taft’s inauguration, however, Nellie endure a stroke due to her hypertension. Their daughter Helen took over First Lady duties. Nellie was able to recover slowly and be more involved as one of her husband’s advisors. Nellie did not like Roosevelt’s oldest daughter, Alice and convinced Taft not to allow Alice’s husband, Nicholas Longworth, in his cabinet. This and her discouragement of Taft declining a meeting with Teddy following his African trip would sow the seeds of discourse between the two.

Roosevelt vs. Taft

Drama would begin for Taft when Richard Ballanger was chosen to run the Department of Interior over James Garfield’s son Jim Garfield who served under Roosevelt. Ballanger restored the majority of public lands that Garfield had previously withdrawn under TR initiative of hydroelectric power. Taft did not want much to do with conservation. He was drawn in when United Press said that Ballanger had delayed the withdrawal and allowed General Electric, Guggenheim, and Amalgamated Copper to get 15,863 acres of land in Montana. Ballanger later proved the piece full of error, that only 40 acres of tracts were involved in restoration. It was not 158,000 either; it was 158.863. Nonetheless, it made the Ballinger-Pinchot controversy symbolic.

 “One of the propositions that I adhere to is that it is a very dangerous method of upholding reform to violate the law in so doing; even on the ground of high moral principle, or of saving the public. Congress has the power to dispose of lands; not the executive. It is the business of the executive to protect the public lands within the limitation of his authority. The power of the President to withdraw land appropriated to poplar settlement by act of Congress is exceedingly limited under the decision of the courts. This power, I do not hesitate to say, was exercised far beyond legal limitation of Secretary Garfield – and, more than that, unnecessarily so.”

The difference between Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft was the authority of the law. The Pinchot-Roosevelt crusade was conservation of land and natural resources. Pinchot did not know law. This was the concern of Taft who wanted conservation to continue in his administration by building reliable information then obtaining congressional authority for what was to be done. The “breaking-up” of Taft and Roosevelt would essentially start here.

Taft would throw out the first pitch on June 9, 1910 at the Washington Nationals baseball game establishing this tradition. While attending a game in Pittsburg, Taft would stand and stretch during the seventh inning. Our of respect, the crowd did the same, introducing this tradition as well!

One of the most major historical events occurred during Taft presidency involving the largest wealth in the world. In 1910, Senator Aldrich, (Henry) Davidson, Vanderlip and Warburg left on midnight trains to Jekyll Island, GA to hunt ducks. They never hunted ducks, but instead, discussed finance for 10 days. Their idea was a Reserve Association of American which would draft a law to make liquid the commercial paper already accepted by member banks. Aldrich was for the executive control being a governor selected by U.S. President from a list submitted by board of directors. Ultimately, the bankers would not give up control. Taft believed the plan was admirable, that it “avoided the only real objection to a central bank, that of concentrating enormous fiscal power in a political head or a few money kings…” that which it did is the reason for our inflation and boom-bust cycles like never seen before.

During his presidency, Nellie supported good working conditions for workers. A bill was passed in 1912 in this manner. She also supported women suffrage. Though prohibition was discussed during this time, Nellie did not support and served alcohol at the White House. A fun fact is in 1912, Nellie placed the first applies of more than 3,000 Japanese cherry trees on Capitol grounds.

Roosevelt was known as the “Trust Buster”, but in comparison to Taft, forty-four cases against monopolies had been started in Roosevelt’s 7.5 years. In less than four years, Taft administration brought 22 civil suits, while, in criminal actions 45 indictments had been found. Taft was not a servant of the trusts, not a brand of ‘corporate attorney’ as others were, in the way that Senator Aldrich, Foraker of Ohio, or Representative J.C. Sibley of Penn. for Standard Oil Company.

The Bathtub

The stress of Taft’s fight with Roosevelt resulted in Taft’s weight increasing to nearly 350 pounds! He ate a steak every morning for breakfast along with grilled partridge, venison, waffles, hominy, rolls and bacon. For dinner, he would eat fish, lamb chops, Lobster Newbury, salmon cutlets, tenderloin and terrapin soup. He drank lots of coffee which reduced his sleep and washed his supper down with persimmon beer or champagne. Taft started needing assistance to exit his bathtub. Ike Hoover was the White House usher since the Harrison administration and noted that Taft “would stick” and needed help “each time” getting out of the bathtub. They ended up building a bathtub that could fit four people!

Workers pose for a photo inside the bathtub made for President Taft. At his heaviest weight of 350 pounds, a new and larger tub was built for Taft which was known to hold four men.

The biggest hit by Roosevelt was attempting to run against Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912. The “Old Guard” would stay with Taft over Roosevelt, which would entirely change the Republican Party. His nomination largely came from the patronage officeholders who became delegates and voting for him at the convention. In the end, Roosevelt’s new Bull Moose Progressive Party would come in second place for president after Woodrow Wilson win in 1912. Taft would only win Vermont in his second run for president.

In summary of his presidential past, Taft said:

“I have held the office of President once, and that is more than most men have, so I am content to retire from it with a consciousness that I have done the best I could., and have accomplished a good deal in one way or another. I have strengthened the Supreme Court, have given them a good deal of new and valuable legislation, have not interfered with business, have kept the peace, and on the whole have enabled people to pursue their various occupations without interruption. It is a very humdrum, uninteresting administration, and it does not attract the attention or enthusiasm of anybody, but after I am out I think that you and I can look back with some pleasure in having done something for the benefit of the public weal.” 

After his presidency, Taft had no taste for private practice. He was hired to teach at Yale until he would be placed on the Supreme Court. In 1914, President Wilson appointed Taft as Chairmen of the Jefferson Memorial Commission.

Chief Justice

During his presidency, he was proud that six of the nine members bore his commission. Another fact I find sincere is that the number of Democratic Justices Taft nominated. The only thing Taft wanted in his life was the Supreme Court. He would turn it down two times, convicted by his pressing duties. It was not until Warren Harding became president that the seat would be offered to him. President Harding offered the highest position to Taft in which he became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1921.Taft would step down in 1930 due to his health and die at age 72 from heart disease and an inflamed liver. Nellie went on to live until 1943 and died at age 81 of heart disease. She is buried next to her husband in Arlington Cemetery.

In summary, I have learned a lot about the difference in executive and passive action. Many would rate Taft presidency as a failure. Keep in mind that Taft was very tempered, as opposed to Roosevelt, and was very kind and thoughtful. Taft had trouble making decisions, where Roosevelt had no issues. Taft’s background was the law, and this carries significance in that our law was written to chain tyranny. If a president subverts the law to accomplish his agenda, then what will the next do? Can you reverse despotism? History says no.

June 29, 2025 - #26 Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.

Possibly the most interesting president was Teddy Roosevelt, and he did not like being called “Teddy”. At this time in American history, the youngest president was the first president to graduate from an Ivy League school, to be from a privileged family in a large city, and to identify with three different geographical regions in America: The North, South and West. He made the term ‘Conservation’ popular. As Colonel, he would lead the Rough Riders in the Spanish-American War, as President, win the Nobel Peace Price, start a new political party, then survive a two-month journey on an um-charted Amazon river, then see 3 of 4 sons fight in World War I. The most popular figure of his time, he should have been the 1st ex-president to be assassinated. Fighting political corruption along the way, he miraculously ‘made his own way’ to the Presidency to serve for nine years.

Born in 1858 to a prominent family, 'Teedie' as he was called, was one of four siblings to Theodore Roosevelt Sr. of 28 East 20th Street, New York and Martha ‘Mittie’ Bulloch Roosevelt of Roswell, Georgia. TR claimed his family blood was mixed often bragged as Dutch Scotch, English, Huguenot and Welsh ancestors. His father was the son of Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt, one of the richest men in the city. Teddie's sister, Anna, was called ‘Bammie’ and suffered a serious condition with her back. She would be the most influential in his life after the death of his mother and first wife.

His young life is marked by his struggle with asthma. His attacks were weekly, generally on Saturday night. With no medicine, I believe it was a miracle he survived childhood. 'Teedie' would sit up in bed all night “gasping for air.” His father would carry him outside or on a carriage ride to get fresh air. The authority on asthma wrote in the 1850s an inability to pin-point allergens. If someone was in a place where similar allergens present, they were fine. But many attacks could not be pointed to an environment. It was believed even then that some psychology was at play, typically fear within the child. ‘Teedie’s attacks occurred at the same time each week. His father once told him, “Son, you have a great mind, but a weak body. The mind can only carry you so far. You will have to build your body strength for your mind to take you where it can.”

David McCullough's book, Mornings on Horseback, detail his young life. The family took a trip to Egypt and Europe when he was 10 years old. He hiked in the Alps, went down the Nile River. Still having asthma attacks, some days were better. Coming back to New York, ‘Teedie’ was interested in animals after seeing a dead seal at the market. He and his brother created a nature museum at his house collecting animal specimens. His father helped fund the American Natural Museum in New York in which ‘Teedie’ ended up donating some of his specimens like the skull of a squirrel. He made many visits to Oyster Bay where the family spent its summers. This is where he learned to ride horses.

This is a picture of Lincoln's funeral procession through NY Union Square in April of 1865. The Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt house is on the left. The children in the window watching are believed to be “Teedie” and his brother Elliott."

Teddy loved his father. The only blemish his father had was paying someone to fight in the Civil War. This was actually legal and many did this, including Grover Cleveland. It bothered Teddy alot, because he believed in fighting. His father did not want to fight because Mittie was from the South, and her brothers were in the Confederate Army. His father stayed in politics after the Civil War and found himself in something unique. Remember when Rutherford Hayes won as a Reformed Republican and took over the Custom House from Roscoe Conckling? The man who was going to be put as head of the NY Custom House was Teddy's father! Conkling stalled the vote in the Senate until they adjourned, and it never came to be. He would write a letter to Teddy after this noting some pain in his stomach.

Tragedy

In 1878, Teddy was a student at Harvard by this time in his second year when his father came down with stomach cancer. In the last week or two of his life, his pain was severe. He had lots of chloriform to ease the pain and died quickly. This was tragic for Teddy. At Harvard, he became his own man, often asking questions to professors and hurried to and from class. He met a girl named Alice Lee who he would marry in 1880. Teddy was elected to the New York Assembly by this time. His mom, Mittie, had become sick. It looked like a cold. Teddy was in the assembly when he received congratulations on his and Alice’s first child. Right after, Alice became sick with Bright's Disease, a kidney ailment. Teddy’s family was called to be with his mom on the first floor in a sick rom. Then on Valentine's Day of 1882, his mom would die from Typhoid Fever. On the 3^rd floor, his wife Alice had blood backing up into her lungs. 12 hours later, TR held Alice while she died. He was destroyed. And it would lead him to seek dangerous adventure as a healing so-to-speak for his trials. In his 1916, autobiography, he never mentioned Alice. I do not believe it was because he did not care, but that he was too destroyed. In his diary, he wrote:

“The light has gone out of my life”

Mr. Roosevelt

Roosevelt became attracted to the hardships of strenuous life in the West after Alice died and to also mediate his asthma. In 1883, he had invested $80,000 in two ranches in the Badlands of western North Dakota. He embraced ranching, hunting and living as cowboy. He hunted every type of animal, killing a grizzly bear once. He once hunted down a guy who stole two boats, chasing them down the river. He arrested them and took them in. He operated Elkhorn ranch and Maltese Cross. Unfortunately, he lost all of it in the winter cold of 1886 and 1887. He was drawn to life’s hardships.

It was during this time that he became very interested in conservation - both land and animals. He read Darwin and believed strongly in natural selection. He studied Darwin's followers who coined ‘survival of the fittest.’ Roosevelt believed evolution answered how biological life worked in nature, but not where life started. He still believed in a Creator still. He loved the work of James Audubon, and would become a true bird watcher.

One year after Alice died, he would meet with Edith Kermit Carow, a childhood friend, next door neighbor of Roosevelt growing up. This is interesting because he wrote that he did not believe a second marriage to be what a man should do should he lose his wife. This may be why his courting Edith was mostly secret. When her mom moved their family to London, Roosevelt would follow! He married Edith December 2, 1886 at St. George’s church in Hanover Square.

The Reformer

A great attribute of TR was his conviction for political reform. Roosevelt would become the New York City Police Commissioner and take on the largest police corruption. Tammany Hall had their hand on public jobs where they forced dues paid to them by police officers, often at a personal loss. However, police promotions came from those in political power. The police were entirely controlled by state politicians. They allowed only saloons to stay open on Sunday – though this was against the law – who paid hefty fees to the political machine. Roosevelt and his right-hand man, Jacob Reese, walked the city at night, where TR noted police officers asleep at their post! He confronted one office who did not notice his new Commissioner and said, “What is it to you?” It was then Roosevelt was pointed out to him and Roosevelt replied, “I’ll see you in my office Monday morning.” Roosevelt was able to shut down almost all the saloons.

This led to his next position as Civil Service Commission under Benjamin Harrison administration. This position would put him next to a future president, William Howard Taft, who served as Circuit Judge in Cincinnati.

Rough Rider

On his way to US President, TR would find himself over the Department of the Navy under McKinley's administration. TR loved navy military and actually wrote a book on the history of the US navy in the war of 1812. But when the Spanish-American War broke out, it was his chance to redeem the only blemish of his father and do what he wanted his life: Be a war hero. They send Roosevelt to San Antonio, TX where he would build a regiment which would get called “Roosevelt's Rough Riders.” Rough Riders was in name only. The name came from on of Buffalo Bill’s traveling shows called “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders.” TR led his Rough Riders in July of 1898, on horseback, up Kettle Hill near San Guan Hill. It is known as the Battle of San Juan Heights. “The charge up Kettle Hill surpassed all the other highlights of my life," said TR. The Spanish were lined along the top of the hill as TR led his men on his horse. He should have been killed, they said. The Spanish surrendered 13 days later, and the Rough Rider became the most popular man in the nation. At their homecoming on Long Island, his men were beaten and torn from battle and Yellow Fever. Roosevelt was said to have looked great, responding,

“I’m in a disgracefully healthy position. I’m ashamed of my health when I look at the poor fellows who I brought with me… I’ve had a bully time, and a bully fight. I feel as big and as strong as a bull moose.”

This would catapult him to being New York Governor.

Governor

Leader of the New York Republican Machine, Boss Platt, did not like Roosevelt nomination. Platt also faced the uncovered corruption of his party. One option was Roosevelt running for NY Governor as an independent. It was Roosevelt himself that killed this idea. He knew his chances of winning would be less, but more importantly, he believed in the party model. TR believed ‘reform’ of the party was more important than splitting from it. At the same time, he would “never render to party what belongs to the state. The state is the first consideration.” Through this, he had to address the fellow reformers who wanted to renounce Boss Platt, he said something that I believed can be used in life:

“Nothing will be accomplished if we do not work through practical methods and with the readiness to face life as it is, not as we think it ought to be.”

While Governor, Roosevelt saw the disparity growing between the corporations of NY, who were allowed a monopoly over contracts. Roosevelt sought a bill to put a corporate tax on these companies, which became a major fight in the Assembly. The corporations who donated said that TR would be politically destroyed if he signed the bill. In the end, he negotiated allowing their minor taxes to be written off. “We do not wish to discourage enterprise. We do not desire to destroy corporations. We do desire to put them fully at the service of the state and the people… anti-trust legislation designed to punish the mere acquisition of wealth would be destructive... it would be worse than idle to deny the existence of abuses of a very brave character. Consequently, we must set out to find what the real abuses are with their causes and to what extent remedies can be applied… The first essential is knowledge of the facts.”

President Roosevelt

McKinley did not want Roosevelt as his VP nominee for his second term as he said, “I want peace.” Mark Hanna didn’t want TR either. But the corruption beneficiaries John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and J. P. Morgan did want TR as VP to get him out of New York. This is a great compliment to TR!Roosevelt initially did not want the VP nomination, because he knew in American history, a VP has only once become President. It nonetheless became his path to President. As VP under McKinley, he presided over a Senate session that lasted just 5 days! When McKinley was assassinated, Roosevelt and Edith were hiking up the Adirondack's in Vermont. TR was summoned coming off the mountain just before McKinley passed away.

It was said that not since Tad and Willie Lincoln walked the halls was there so much excitement in the White House. Roosevelt and Edith's five children with Alice, from his first marriage, named after her mom standing in the middle.

TR became uncomfortable with mannered society. He carried a gun, ate with his fingers, reading books at the dinner table, waving off blessings. In 1901, Roosevelt directed his personal secretary to change all the signature and date lines from ‘Executive Mansion’ to ‘White House.’ He removed many former portraits and replaced them with moose, buffalo and elk heads he had personally hunted. Electric crystal chandeliers became the flood of light. His work was more in the new West Wing, with his six children all throughout the house. He took breaks to spend time with his family, often hiking in Rock Creek Park. He would focus on his speeches and letters in between.

In 1904, TR would run president on his own merit. He would be the first folk icon and romantic since Abraham Lincoln. But he knew Mark Hanna was opposed to his nomination, and the New York Republican Machine was trying to defeat him. “I have no faction, no money. I will become a subject for elimination.” He forgot his own accomplishments coming after McKinley died. TR had settled a coal strike in 1902 by bringing the union and coal bosses to the White House, threatening them to either settle “or else” (the federal government will sieve and operate the coal mines. He inaugurated his corporation-control policy by a suit against Northern Securities, a J.P. Morgan company. He opens up a new cabinet position called the Department of Commerce and Labor. He began regulation of railroads through the Elkins Act, which stopped rebating. Panama was seized and settled an Alaska boundary dispute. He accomplished so much with the motto of an old African proverb:

“Speak softly and carry a big stick. You will go far.”

Roosevelt easily defeats Democrat Alton B. Parker 336 – 140 electoral votes. At Roosevelt’s Inauguration, 2,000 American flags were handed out and Cowboys from TX and OK had arrived. 6 Native Americans to participate in Inauguration: Geronimo (Apache), Buckskin Charley (Ute), Little Plomb, (Blackfoot American Horse (Bruel Sioux), Hollow-horn Bear (Rosebud Sioux), and Quanah-Parker (Camanche).

As president, the Panama Canal would be finalized, the boundary dispute with Canada over Alaska would be settled, avoiding war with Britain over Venezuela, he took the side of mine workers in Anthrocite Coal Strike, enacted numerous Anti-Trust lawsuits over monopolies like Northern Trust Co., which were to ensure that rich and pour were equal under the law. He would be most known for Conservation.

Conservation

When asked in 1918 why he loved wildlife so much, he said, “I can no more explain why I like natural history than why I like California canned peaches.”

TR was architect of the scientific conservation movement. He made conservation a universal endeavor. He believed it was better for the government to help a poor man to make a living for his family than to help a rich man make more profit for his company. The corporate interests formed where pioneers had failed to develop their claims to accumulate natural resources into private profit. In 2008, only 1.9% of Americans live in rural areas compared to 40% in TR’s day. This was land, wildlife, specific to birds and water. His conservation influence began with the works of John James Audubon and Charles Darwin. Many in TR’s generation would be influenced by these men. Theodore Roosevelt was known for being a blend of his greatest naturalist friends. TR = George Grunell: Hunting + Charles Darwin: Pollution + Gifford Ponchot: Unitarianism + John Burroughs: Tender Naturalist. This led TR to testify on the Public Lands Committee against expansion of railroads. In the late 1800s, TR and George Grunell founded the Boone & Crockett Club. This would be the great conservation lobby. They accomplished their first victory with the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 during Harrison’s administration. They then saw the Timberland Act of 1891, Yellowstone Protection Act of 1894, and the creation of New York Zoological Society.

3 National Parks, 29 National Forests, and 2 Federal Bird Reservations

Ultimately, he didn’t work well with Congress, but was good Executor. Archie Butt in 1910 said, “TR believed in administrative justice, and as a role he was seldom wrong; only he ought more often to have admitted the legal way of reaching the same ends.”

About his presidency Roosevelt admitted, “I did not usurp power, but I did greatly broaden the use of executive power.”

Bull Moose Party

Roosevelt left the States after Taft’s election. During his year traveling the world, the Taft administration fell into difficulty with the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill and his cabinet with James Garfield and Giffort Pinchot. TR initially did not let the removal of Garfield concern him, but the later Pinchot – Ballinger controversy drove a wedge between TR and Taft. After the Cunningham coal scandal with Richard Ballanger, TR was beginning to feel indifferent toward Taft. Sadly, it all compounded until TR decided to run for president for a third term against Taft! This too was awkward, since TR stated after his first election, that he would not seek a third term. This he was mistaken, because he now had to now go against the Republican Old Guard again. Not to mention, many primaries were now voted directly by the people. Like Trump today, TR was always on the offense. This he said about Taft after Taft talked about TR not giving him a “square deal.”

“He only discovered I was dangerous to the people when I discovered he was useless to the people.”

On October 14, 1912, another lunatic named John Shrank, shot TR in Milwaukee. TR had already canceled some stops due to his voice. The bullet entered his right pocket and hit his glasses case. It went into his chest cavity, but stopped right behind the ribs. He finished his speech before physicians looked at his wound!

Though Roosevelt was so popular during this campaign, the Old Guard would prevail and Taft was nominated for a second term by the Republicans. TR would then create the Bull Moose Party as a Third Party. In the end, he received a lot of votes for a third candidate. Taft was crushed. The excursion on Roosevelt’s part would allow Woodrow Wilson to be elected.

Roosevelt’s Darkest Journey

One of the many incredible adventures of Roosevelt's life occurred after his humiliating 1912 election under the “Bull-moose Party" of the progressive movement. Through many contacts and opportunities, Roosevelt was to take a journey to South America in Paraguay where he would collect more animal specimens. The journey turned into a historic and miracle expedition down the River of Doubt in Brazil's Amazon Rainforest. Led by one of the top explorers of the time, Colonel Candido Mariano da Silva Randon laid telegraph line through the Amazon Rain forest for nearly half his life. Called the Roosevel-Rondon Scientific Expedition would travel the un-mapped River of Doubt with 7 dugout canoes, 15 other camaradas including his son, Kermitt. They left on February 27, 1914 and were rescued on April 16th that year.

Roosevelt in his dugout purchased by Rondon from the Nhambiquara. Most of these canoes were lost to rapids along with their supplies. “One was small, one was cranky, and two were old, waterlogged, and leaky,” Roosevelt wrote in his journal.

One of the most fascinating books is Candice Millard's The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey. It details this expedition through a treacherous jungle where you could see no more than five feet, mosquitos transmitting numerous disease, waters filled with piranhas and losing canoes and supplies to boulder-filled, whitewater rapids. One man would drown, another would be murdered and another left in the jungle to die. Roosevelt would lose 50 pounds and barely survive an infection in his leg after being cut on a rock. He actually asked the group to leave him in the jungle! They would ultimately be found by the rubber men, who traveled up from the mouth of the river as they collected sap for rubber. His son, Kermit, fought malaria the entire 2 1/2 months. The most frightening encounter was them being spared by the Cinta Larga - native Indians who were known for killing anyone who crossed their path. It turned out, they were following Roosevelt's expedition the entire time! Rondon, who respected them, left the Cinta Larga gifts in the jungle. Years later, two expeditions tried to emulate Roosevelt's. The first expedition turned around fearing the Cinta Larga, and the second expedition was never seen again after they departed. It was believed thy were killed by the Cinta Larga.

The expedition left Roosevelt’s body in a frail condition. It was not until Roosevelt was hospitalized for removal of a fistula that truly brought The Colonel and Taft back together. The Colonel responded to Taft with a draft speech to deliver in March as an indictment of Wilson’s handling of The Great War titled “Speed up the War and Take Thought for After the War”. Taft concurred with all of Roosevelt’s thoughts. Roosevelt never recovered from the malaria. Christmas of 1918, he was back at Sagamore Hill after another hospital stay. He recovered through January until telling Edith he felt a “sensation of depression about the chest.” Edith called the family physician. That night, Roosevelt’s heart would stop as he slept. James Amos, a valet who served TR in the White House and Edith were there when he took his last breaths after a coronary embolism. Vice President Thomas Marshall cabled from Washington:

“Death had to take him sleeping for if Roosevelt had been awake, there would have been a fight.”

Roosevelt would live to see one child, Quentin, die in WWI after being shot down. Archie would survive WWI and WWII. Theodore Jr. landed on Utah Beach on D-Day as a brigadier general in the army, earning a Medal of Honor. Ethel served as a nurse in France during WWII. Edith would outlive Archie, Quentin and Kermitt, who committed suicide in 1943. She would die in 1948 after burning all the letter she and Roosevelt wrote to each other.

May 6, 2025 - #25 William McKinley, Jr.

A largely forgotten, but talented president also from Ohio, the first to preside over the Age of Empire, the last president to fight in the Civil War and the third to be assassinated. His rise, during a prosperous and political shifting time, was overshadowed by other well-known leaders like Henry Cabot Lodge and Teddy Roosevelt. President McKinley was ‘America First’ before it was a term. He was one of the most effective presidents of our history putting America on the road to world power.

McKinley was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio. He attended at Allegheny College and enlisted to serve in the Civil War.

During the war, First Lieutenant McKinley was essentially sent on a suicide mission near Kearnstown on July 24, 1864. He was ordered to ride his horse across a battlefield hammered with Confederate musket fire to let the 13th West Virginia to withdraw before they were overrun by Jubal Early's split of those forces. Comrads witnessed McKinley ride his brown horse through incredible circumstances and literally emerge through the smoke of muskets to reach the West Virginians. His commanding officer, also a future president, Colonel Rutherford B Hayes, said, "I never expected to see you in life again."

After the war, he would move to Canton, OH to be a lawyer. He would meet a Lawyer's daughter named Ida Saxton in 1867, and they would marry in 1871. The way McKinley loved and treated Ida would be a strong mark on his life. His life would move to politics as he would be elected to US Congress at the age of 34. At the 1884 Republican Convention in Chicago, McKinley spoke quickly in reference to a move to hurt James G. Blaine. Teddy Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge worked close to keep Blaine from winning, but he won the nomination. And McKinley developed a partnership with a guy named Mark Hana that would set his course to president.

McKinley was put as chair of the House Ways and Means Committee when his first great accomplishment became the McKinley Tariff of 1890. McKinley was a big “protectionist” and credited with the term “reciprocity”. It is where a country may give up something with one trade but gain in a different trade - not necessarily flat tariffs on everyone. (I wrote the details of this below called A History of Tariffs: The First 100 Years). McKinley was known to have a good personality, great character and quick intelligence. He had the tact of a politician as well.

By this time, he and Ida had two girls: Ida and Kate. Sadly, Kate would die of typhoid fever at age 5 and Ida would die shortly after as a baby. His wife basically became a recluse before she turned 30. This was all after she already had strange seizures and migraine headaches. This epilepsy that Ida developed would cause her to look straight up while sitting. She would eventually come to. While McKinley was in public venues, he would put a rag on her face until she stopped.

After his 14 years served in Congress, he became Governor of Ohio through the second Cleveland Administration. Mark Hanna, who became rich through the coal, steel and iron. A businessman from Ohio who became a good politician in the 1860s Republican Party. Mark wanted to make someone President, but McKinley was more influential in his Republican nomination for the 1896 election. McKinley worked very well in the background. After his nomination, Mark Hanna established a new-style of campaigning. He created a systematic approach to campaign literature, an educational-style where pamphlets were sent to targeted groups, Hanna financed by expanded funding, including the front-porch style used by Harrison. Hanna would bring thousands to McKinley's home in Dayton.

The election of 1896 was historical for campaigning a post-Gilded Age and Democrat nominee, William Jennings Bryan. Bryan was a populist from Nebraska that represented the westerners and southerners who were more agrarian. The issues of the day were more economic: currency and tariffs. Southern and Westerners were racking up debt as they paid their loans to banks and merchants after their crops came in. This brought division between debtors and inventors. In cities, there were conflict between management and laborers. The westerners favored silver in the market. The North and East industry favored sound currency due the the inflation brought on by silver, and of course, protection. McKinley won 271 to Bryan's 176 electoral votes. He also won 464,000 plurality in mid-western cities - the same cities Cleveland had won previously. When the news came to McKinley, he was found kneeling with his wife and mother, Nancy (87), in a bedroom where his mother said,

“Oh God, Keep him humble.”

President McKinley

His presidency was mostly be remembered for the Spanish-American War. There were a few other things going on such as the inquisition of Hawaii and Panama Canal. McKinley was very instrumental in making things happen, very business-like.

In January of 1897, two newspapers in New York reported on the revolution by Cubans against the tyranny of Spain. This inflamed some Americans where the same thing had been happening in the Phillipeans. Spanish rules Cuba, Puerto Rico and Phillipeans. For the most part, McKinley did not like proposition of war. The gentleman that served as Secretary of the Navy, however, did. His name was Teddy Roosevelt. The USS Maine was sent to Havana Harbor in Cuba. Then in September, an explosion of the USS Maine killed 214 sailors. An investigation was urged by McKinley though most blamed a Spanish flotilla. Spain was blamed and at the end of 1897, Congress declared war on Spain.

April 20, 2025 - Panic of 1893

The stock market collapsed, banks collapsed and bank runs ensued in June of 1893 ultimately result of arbitrary credit-creation powers of the banking system. It started thanks to the National Banking Acts of 1863 - 1864 which semi-cartelized the banking system. Only certain banks could issue money, but all other banks had to have accounts at these. Silver came back in the 1890s with inflationary Republicans passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which doubled treasury purchase of silver. The McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 committed high tariff and soft money. This shift from gold to silver cause foreigners to lose confidence in the U.S. gold standard, and drop in capital imports and golf outflows from America. This of course caused a contraction pressure on our economy. By 1892, gold exports went up more, the Treasury's gold reserve declined and a run on the U.S. Treasury resulted. In February of 1893, the Treasury tried to get the New York banks to return gold and reacquire the paper. The Treasury was paying the price for specie without contracting the paper notes in circulation. The stock market fell, and banks were allowed to suspend specie payments. The total money supply fell 6.3% in one year. And guess who gets the blame? The hard-money Democrat, Grover Cleveland, who just stepped in for his second term! But by the end of 1893, it was over when foreign confidence rose with Cleveland administration's repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.

This summary written from “A History of Money and Banking in the United States: The Colonial Era to WWII,” Murray Rothbard, p. 167 - 169

April 12, 2025 - #23 Benjamin Harrison

Our 23rd president was inaugurated 100 years after George Washington. His grandfather was our 9th president and his great-grandfather signed the Declaration of Independence. Our only president from Indiana would serve one term between both of Grover Cleveland's in a period of significant economic growth as we shift from the Gilded Age to the Age of Empire. The last Civil War General to serve as president was a very humble man, who was known for integrity and a strong man of faith.

Born August 20, 1833, Benjamin Harrison was born to the last living son of William Henry Harrison and Anna Harrison. Do you remember that Anna lost all of her children but one son and her husband also died in office of pneumonia? The remaining son was John Scott Harrison, the only person to be the child and parent of a U.S. president! He served in Congress himself from 1853 to 1857. Our 23rd president was Scott and Elizabeth Harrison's 2nd son in North Bend, Ohio.

Ben met his wife Caroline, daughter of a teacher at Farmer's College in Cincinnati, Ohio, in about 1847. Her dad Dr. John W. Scott, later moved their family to Oxford Female Institute, which he helped found. Ben followed then to Oxford, OH to attend Miami University, ‘the Harvard of the West.’ He secretly engaged Caroline in 1853 and had to decide on either law, ministry or physics to make a living. He chose law, was admitted to the bar in 1854 and chose to settle in Indianapolis for his and Caroline's home. Ben's family was strong Presbyterian, and his faith in God was strong that he said in a speech:

“Fellow Christians, if you adopt this Profession, let me effectively entreat you to remember that you are to do all the glory of God.”

In July of 1862, Indiana Governor Oliver P. Mortan asked Harrison to recruit men of the Seventieth Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment. His men called him “Little Ben”. He came down to Georgia serving at battles of Peach Tree Creek and Resaca. “I know of no higher honor in the world than to be called ‘comrade’ by the survivors of those who saved the Union.”

In 1868, Ben and Caroline built a new home on North Delaware Street accompanying 16-room, Italianate-style. It was three-story, red-brick house that had a coal-fed furnace, running water in the kitchen and bathroom, 12-foot high ceilings, 23 gaslights and burglar alarm of bells and strings attached to doors.

A very interesting story in Harrison's profession law career was a situation in 1873 involving Thomas R. Marshall who was a student at Wabash College in Indiana. As the editor for The Geyser, he wrote an article making fun of a temperance speaker playing “footsie” under the table with students. This lady was Ida Leggett and was married. The college kicked Ida out! So she hired a local lawyer, Lew Wallace, to bring a lawsuit of $20,000 in damages. Marshall was now in trouble and without any money he sought the help of a lawyer named Benjamin Harrison! Once the case was heard in New York, Ida withdrew the lawsuit. Marshall asked what he owed Harrison and he responded, “Not a cent. I wouldn't think of taking anything from you. You have been foolish boys and this will be a great lesson to you. Never hereafter in life charge anybody with wrongdoing or crime that you do not have in your hands undoubted proof that it is true before you make the charge, and even then don't make it unless you are quite satisfied that by the making of it you are either defending yourself or performing some real public service.” Marshall later rose to political power serving two terms as Indiana governor and vice president under Woodrow Wilson.

Two significant Hoosier court cases put Harrison on the political light: One was The Cold Springs tragedy and the other was a Hoosier Democrat, Lambdin P. Milligan, who planned a armed uprising during the Civil War to free and arm Confederate prisoners. After this, it was perfect time for Harrison to run for governor of Indiana in 1872 especially since its long-time governor and leader Oliver P. Morton had moved on to the senate. Harrison lost that nomination. In 1876, he would run for governor again and lose a close race. It was fortunate not to deal with the Railroad Strike of 1877. Then a senate seat came up in which Harrison won. In the 1880 Republican Convention, Harrison led the Indiana delegates for James Garfield. In 1884, James G. Blaine of Maine won the ticket against Cleveland. It is believed he lost due to the Rum, Rebellion, and Romanism speech by a Presbyterian minister just before the election.

1888 Election

The election of 1888 for Republicans came town to James G. Blaine and the “Blainiacs”. Blaine was starting to have health issues and decided to only run if called upon, but not to form his own delegation. John Sherman once again was a contender along with Benjamin Harrison. I believe what helped Harrison was was that Blaine ended up supporting his nomination since Harrison supported Blaine in 1884. Once the Ohio delegation turned to Harrison from Sherman, Harrison won the nomination. He would now face incumbent Grover Cleveland in what could have been a very contested election.

Before the election, Harrison would embark on a speaking schedule in which he gave more than 80 talks to better than 300k visitors to Indianapolis from the summer to October. It was usually three per day, but one time he did seven! People would come to hear Harrison at his house on Delaware Street. My favorite part about this was the support he had from the ‘Tippecanoe Club’, who were men from Marion County that had voted for his grandfather in 1840 election. Harrison spoke convincingly about a protective tariff, against growth of monopolies organizing in trusts to control control trade.

Members of the Tippecanoe Club on July 4, 1888

This election was dramatized by two letters, one from each party. The Murchison Letter was a CA Republican sent a litter signed Charles F. Murchison to Sir Lionel Sackville-West, the British ambassador to the U.S. asking him how to vote. Sackville-West, fooled, actually answered that people should vote for Cleveland! This hurt Cleveland's campaign. But the Dudley Letter written by RNC Committee Treasurer, William W. Dudley would acknowledge a class of voters called “floaters” and how they could be bought. He actually advised to “divide the voters into blocks of five, and put a trusted man, with necessary funds, in charge of these five, and make them responsible that none get away” in an effort for Republicans to steer known Democrat voters to their own cash.  No one knows how much the scandals hurt. Even Cleveland showed little interest when asked his thoughts on the election scandals.

Harrison would win the electoral college 233 to 168 for Cleveland but lose the popular vote 5,534,488 to 5,443,892. At this point, Harrison would be the third president to lose the popular vote but win. Cleveland in 1888 would join Jackson in 1824 and Samuel Tilden in 1876. Cleveland did not campaign believing “the office sought the man." That, and I believe, the tariff issue was why Harrison prevailed.

Mr. President

When Harrison arrived in Washington, he was noted to act more democratic than any president as he took walks along Connecticut Avenue in his plain black overcoat and his tall hat. There of course, was no secret service! He was known for being hands-on with his administrations policies. He worked close with the 51st Congress which was Republican-controlled from 1891 to 1893. This congress saw the McKinley Tariff Act, Sherman Anti-Trust Act, Dependent Pension Act and the Forest Reserve Act signed into law. Thomas B. Reed was Speaker of the House and Henry Cabot Lodge was one of its congressman. Harrison was not a favorite of civil service reformers as he turned down Secretary of State James Blaine who wanted his son to be the first assistant secretary of state. But Harrison did give Theodore Roosevelt his first national office as a civil service commissioner. The states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho and Wyoming all became states under his administration.

Harrison's wife Caroline lived in the Executive Mansion with their daughter, Mary KcKee, and her two children. Caroline eventually got her father John W. Scott to live in the mansion along with her niece, Mary “Mame” dimmick, who would help her aunt with social duties. The First Lady wanted to help update the 90-year-old Executive Mansion (still not called White House) with ideas for an East Wing  for art gallery, a West Wing for offices and a fountain commemorating Christoper Columbus' ‘discovery’ of America. An architect called it “Mrs. Harrison's Suggestion for the Extension of the Executive Mansion.” Ultimately, Congress would not pass legislation, but id allow her $35k to make amendments. Caroline then began with improvement projects like installing private bathrooms with all the bedrooms, new wallpaper and paint, a new kitchen, fixing rotted floors, new furnishings, adding a greenhouse. But a major change came with new electric lights and call bells, overseen by electricians from the Edison Company. Usher Irwin “Ike” Hoover noted the Harrison's wary of the new system. They would not touch the lights! Ike would then turn on the lights at night and turn them off in the morning.

This time period was the dawn of conservation. The first big accomplishment of the newly-formed Boone & Crockett Club was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which set aside 13 million acres, put an end to the public giveaway of lands to railroads. This group was co-founded by Theodore Roosvelt and would lead his platform of conservation. It enshrined the government’s role in protecting wildlife in American forests. Section 24 gave the president the right to set aside public lands into forest reserves.

On Indian affairs, the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred at the end of 1890 where greater than 100 Lakota men, women and children from Big Foot's camp were killed along with 25 soldiers from the 7th Calvary. Detailed in Peter Cozzin's book, The Earth is Weeping: The Epic Story of the Indian Wars for the American West, Wounded Knee was the final hope for Harrison policy of his and previous presidential administrations hoping to “civilize” Native Americans by turning them into farmers and 'educating' them for citizenship. Seeing their way of life taken by American government, they began these “ghost dances". As the movement spread, it made whites more fearful. One unknown shot led to the massacre of Wounded Knee.

Harrison did not strongly desire to run for president again, but felt that he must fight for his seat. His relationship with Secretary of State Blaine had become difficult as Blaine was sick and Harrison doing most of his job for him. Harrison won the nomination over Blaine and William McKinley of Ohio and subsequently faced Grover Cleveland for round two. Both men did not campaign, but it likely hurt Harrison more than Cleveland. Caroline had come down with tuberculosis. As her condition deteriorated, Harrison was with her and not giving speeches. Caroline died in October of 1892, and Harrison did not make the trip to Indianapolis to vote for himself. Cleveland won electoral college 277 to Harrison's 145 and 5.5 million to 5.1 million on popular vote.

He moved back into his house in Indianapolis after his presidency continuing his law practice. Many were surprise when Harrison married Mary Dimmick, who was Caroline's widowed neice,  in 1896. Mary was also 25 years younger than Benjamin. This book did not mention it, but another biography mentioned some awkwardness in their relationship. I wonder if they had a relationship while Caroline was sick? His children Russell and Mary denounced the wedding and remained estranged from Harrison. In 1897, Mary gave birth to a daughter named Elizabeth. 

One day, Harrison would feel as if he had the cold. After a few days it turned to pneumonia which would take his life in 1901 at the age of 67. His remains are at Crown Hill Cemetery next to Caroline. Mary Dimmick joined Harrison after her death in 1948. The image on the book below uses an 1896 portrait of Mr. Harrison.

April 10, 2025 - A History of Tariffs: The First 100 Years

In my William McKinley book, author Robert W. Merry covers a quick history of tariffs before discussing McKinley's tariff bill of 1890. America's first proponent of tariffs was Alexander Hamilton, who was in between the protectionist mindset and one of free trade. He believed in tariffs to protect American business against Great Britain until business was more successful. Tariffs during the 1790s through 1820 were around 8.5%.

After the 1820s, mercantilists in New England wanted higher protectionists tariffs to protect their industries. We saw a real political divide between the new Democrat Party and Whig Party. Two different tariff bills went into effect raising tariffs to around 50%. One of these bills termed the “Tariff of Abominations” was enacted during the John Quincy Adams Administration and is actually what set the tone for Civil War. South Carolina threatened “nullify” these tariffs, and subsequent President Andrew Jackson threatened to invade South Carolina if they attempted nullification. These tariffs hurt the South two ways: 1) They had to pay higher prices for goods they could not produce themselves and 2) by lessening Great Britain's imports, Britain purchased less cotton from the South. Tariffs fluctuated between 16 and 26% before the Tariff of Abominations then went to 50% following. After Jackson made a compromise with South Carolina, tariff rates came down to about 35%.

Jackson's protege, James Polk, wanted to set up tariffs to assuage both the North and the South. Polk's legislation operated on two principles: 1) Tariffs did not need to be higher than what would be enough to run the government, and 2) within that range, the government could target tariffs on what industry needed protection. Polk's bill was observed as a free trade measure and passed. Tariffs then came down to between 20 and 28%.

In the 1850s, tariffs get more complicated with protectionists of the North coming together for higher tariffs. This started with Justin Morrill of Vermont and Way and Means Committee Chairmen, John Sherman of Ohio, who crafted a bill that would not pass until the South succeeded. After the war, the country was in debt and couldn't get back to free trade. The Republicans controlled and nurtured their base through Reconstruction which favored industry and protectionism. Through the 1870s, the government actually had much more money than it needed as tariffs during this time ran about 40%.

The Democrats' solution to this problem was this: lower tariffs. Interesting, because now you have the first Democrat president since James Buchanan elected in 1884 who wants to do something about the high revenue issue. Grover Cleveland puts a Texas (D) Representative Roger Mills to the task of crafting a bill similar to Polk's legislation. Mills wanted duty free raw materials and taxes reduced on manufactured items. This would solve the problem except the Republicans attacked it by Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island. What came out was another bill called the Allison Bill, by William Allison of Iowa, a protectionist Republican. The bill put back the tariffs but helped to solve the revenue issue by lowering excise taxes on whiskey and tobacco. It cleared the Senate but was stuck in the House Ways and Means committee by the 1888 election. The two bills likely resulted in the election of Benjamin Harrison over incumbent Cleveland.

Now we get to McKinley! When Harrison was elected, McKinley was over the Ways and Means committee in the House and was fighting for his new bill patterned after the Allison Bill. He wanted to address $10 million of the annual $60 million surplus by getting rid of domestic excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol. He wanted to raise or maintain tariff rates on other goods to prevent importing of those goods (higher grade cotton, cotton knits, linens, stockings, earthen and china ware, and all iron, steel, and metal products). McKinley, like Aldrich, believed if you place tariffs high enough, “you diminish importations and to that extent diminish the revenue.” This was the case on tin plate, which was being used in the popular canning industry, but not manufactured in the U.S. He wanted to raise the rates on tin plate high enough to stop imports of tin and create a domestic industry. Sound familiar?

The McKinley bill was the first to address agriculture and U.S. farmers with $25 million of ag products coming in from Canada. He wanted that $25 million coming from us. Who could say “that $25,000,000 of additional demand for American agricultural products will not incur to the benefit of the American farmer . . . and give to the farmer confidence and increased ability to lift the mortgages from his lands?” He received applause for this, but his duty on sugar was completely different. Since 7/8 of the sugar consumed in America was imported into the country, McKinley wanted to eliminate these duties and side with the consumer. He added a two-cent “bounty” for U.S. producers of sugar to off-set. This off-set the revenue by about $56 million, and left others acknowledging the tariff system as a "discrimination between the various productive industries of the country, a system which imposes charges upon some for the support of others," from the Ways and Means minority report.

Roger Mills argued that this surplus - created from the tariffs - would have to be sold for foreign entities, and that our barriers to their products will entice them to make barriers for our products. This becomes a trade war! Mills believed to GET something, you have to GIVE something. And he also showed data from pig iron that when imports of pig iron increased, so did domestic production; when imports declined, domestic production declines also. “The Republicans tell us that when importation starts up, production starts down. It is not true.” It was then that Secretary of State James G. Blaine of Maine would add one more thing to this bill…

McKinley had the votes in the House, but Aldrich wanted to add stuff to it to his liking which stalled it in the Senate. Blaine felt like the bill was far too protectionist and said to GOP members in the VP office one day, “I think the bill is an infamy and an outrage…Go on with it and it will carry our party to perdition.” Blaine proposed something called “reciprocity” which allowed the president to impose tariffs on certain South American products that were on the free list of those countries imposed tariffs on certain U.S. goods. The idea was to continue the Republican protectionism but allow free-trade exceptions that would benefit the United States. Have you heard of this today?

McKinley warmed up to this idea and we ended up with a bill that addressed the economic issue of the budget surplus and the political issue being the push from industrial interests for more protection. It's four parts were: 1) expansive farm duties, 2) the sugar bounty, 3) a tariff to protect a non-existent tin plate industry and 4) the reciprocity principle. It was signed into law by our 23rd President Benjamin Harrison on October 1st, who was inaugurated 100 years after Georgie Washington.

In summary, the McKinley bill passed only because he had the votes. I think the debate was won by Congressman Roger Mills. Nonetheless, McKinley acknowledged that the tariff writing got out of control in the Senate. He believed the final bill reflected his view that protectionism was key to American prosperity and greatness. McKinley drew differences in American's protection and free-trade Britain over previous 20 years showing the total value of U.S. imports and exports increased by 62% from 1870 - 1889 while Britain's trade increased by only 25%. Further Britain's global trade fell from 27% in 1830 to 21% in 1880; America's global trade increased from 3.7% to 11.5% during that same time. America led all nations in agriculture, mining and manufacturing by this time. McKinley felt like this was the prize after 30 years of protection tariffs. Was there a better system? I am not sure. But other critics made a good point.

Senator John B. Allen of Washington pointed out that many factors contributed to our growth with lack of much evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between protectionism and American property saying, “prosperity and adversity have come alternately under both a high and a low tariff.” America was new, populated by expansionist people on fertile soil with rivers and coasts and the blessing of raw materials. I think Senator Allen is onto something - that maybe tarriffs are like checkers. You make a move, the other makes a move. If there were any policy affecting growth outside of its normal expansion and production, it would be money and banking. This is why I cover this in each of our presidents. Tariff is a tax, money is a commodity. If you manipulate a commodity, you will create BOOMS and BUSTS in the market, which would naturally be minimal without manipulation.

February 13, 2025 - #22 and #24 Grover Cleveland

Our first president to serve two, non-consecutive terms, the second youngest president at that time, the only president to be married in the White House, and one of three presidents to win the popular vote three times, Grover Cleveland would go from Mayor of Buffalo to President of the U.S. in three years and veto more legislation than any president. Not to mention, he would preside over the greatest economical period of our history and survive a secret medical operation in his second term. He was a man of iron.

Born 5th of 9 children to Richard Cleveland, Grover was born in 1837 in Vermont as his father was a Presbyterian minister. Grover's life would mostly begin in a town outside of Utica, New York. He was greatly affected by the death of his father from peritonitis when his father resided on his sick bed while Grover and family looked after him. The next day, Grover heard of his father's death from a man in town. Grover's older brother would talk him into moving to Buffalo in 1855, which would set the stage for his rise to presidency.

Buffalo had grown ten times population in 30 years since the Eerie Canal to 81,000. Cleveland took on an apprenticeship at the prestigious Buffalo firm of Rogers, Bowen, & Rogers where he would stay after passing the bar in 1860. He rose to chief clerk. In 1863, Cleveland was appoint assistant district attorney. In 1865, he lost the district attorney election to his roommate and future law partner, Lyman Bass. Cleveland would join a law practice with a guy named Oscar Folsom, who's daughter he would later marry.

In 1870, Cleveland ran for and became Sheriff of Eerie County. In his law practice and as sheriff, Cleveland was known for his integrity. His integrity to his sheriff position went just as far as “The Buffalo Hangman." Two times in his term, he was called to carry out executions. Both men were convicted of murder. The law allowed Cleveland the right to pass on the responsibility to a deputer for $10 fee. Cleveland lost sleep, became ill and hated the days of those executions. But he never accepted the reprieve as he did not believe in passing on the stomach-turning responsibilities. He did not allow the general public to attend either.

In October of 1881, Cleveland stumbled into a restaurant in Buffalo where Democrat Party men were looking for someone to run for Mayor of Buffalo. The city had been corrupt for a long time and Cleveland vowed to make government cleaner, cheaper and better at its core duties. In 1882, the city sent a $422,000, 5-year contract to Georgia Talbot for upkeep of Buffalo's roadways. The mistake they made was that Talbot was not the lowest bidder and submitted his bid $50K higher than originally. The city tried to rescind it but the long nights Cleveland worked, he vetoed it. The best part is Talbot was a close friend and former client of Cleveland's. After Talbot lost the bid, Cleveland said, “While I was your attorney, I was loyal to your interests. Now the people are my clients and I must be loyal to them.”

By this time, New York state politics shifted away from Tammany Hall after “Boss” Tweed's demise to “Honest John” Kelly. Tammany maintained its patronage, but let go alot of its corruption of state funds. Samuel Tilden, the real winner of the 1876 presidential election, led Irving Hall, a business contingent. A third wing called New York County Democracy was also in the mix. Cleveland left Buffalo to tend to his mother, Ann, then running for NY Governor in 1882.

At this time, Chester Arthur was president. By 1884, it did not seem Chester would run again. The Republicans rallied one more time behind James G. Blaine of Maine. It was at the Democratic Convention in New York where Former Union Brigadier General and Wisconsin Representative, Edward S. Bragg, spoke on how Grover Cleveland was energizing the young voters of Wisconsin:

“They love him, gentlemen. And they respect him, not only for himself, but for his character, his integrity and judgement and his iron will. But they love him most for the enemies that he has made.”

Something interesting came up during the campaign on a relationship and illegitimate child Cleveland had with a girl named Maria Halpin. It was a preacher around Buffalo that let this information out. Cleveland was a bachelor through this time. Initially, it appeared Cleveland bullied a sexual relationship with her and left her with the child, but in the end, Maria came forward and did not fault Cleveland. In his final days campaigning in Bridgeport, Connecticut, Cleveland gave a remark that would fit very well today. What concerned Cleveland was not policy as much as the moral standing of the people making that policy.

“There should be no mistake about this contest. It is an attempt to break down the barrier between the people of the United States and those that rule them. The people are bound down by a class of officeholders whose business it is to make money out of their positions. If you are to go on forever choosing your rules from this class, what will be the end?”

Cleveland's victory over James G. Blaine was solidified with a most unique speech given by Presbyterian minister Samuel Burchard days before the election saying, “We are Republicans, and don't propose to leave our party and identify ourselves with the party whose antecedents have been rum, Romanism, and rebellion.” The slander included all Democrats, non-prohibitionists and all Catholics and southerners. Blaine's mom was Irish Catholic. Cleveland wins election becoming the first Democrat since James Buchanan to take office.

Cleveland 1.0

Just before he took office, Cleveland dealt with a major monetary policy issue on silver. (I include the silver history in Rutherford Hayes). At the time of the Bland-Allison Act, a silver dollar valued at 94 cents of gold. By 1886, it declined to less than 72 cents. On this issue the Democrats were split, with most supporting silver. People were better off to pay their bills with silver and hoard gold. (This fundamentally is "Gresham's Law, which states that bad money drives out good money.). This was especially a problem since the federal treasury was obligated to issue payments in gold but also accept payment in silver. The Treasury was also to maintain gold reserves of $100 million. His simple message spoke truth on inflation:

“If the laboring man should receive four depreciated dollars where he now receives but two, he will pay in the depreciated coin more than double the price he now pays for all the necessaries and comforts of life.”

Cleveland pushed to stop the coinage of silver as a minority of Democrats. This issue would hurt him in his reelection campaign. Nonetheless, the Treasury secretary made payments in greenbacks where possible and Cleveland was able to increase gold reserves by more than 20% during his first year.

Union veterans became a major issue after Cleveland took office. The Arrears Act of 1879 singed by President Hayes allowed pension to be awarded to the date of injury rather than the date of application. Those eligible became porous and applications jumped from less than 37,000 to over 110,000. This made Union veterans becoming the 2nd largest federal expenditure, behind interest payments on national debt. Cleveland guarded tax dollars very carefully, but would put him at-odds with this group. This is what led to him being known for his numerous vetoes though he passed 90% of private pension legislation.

414 Vetoes in First Term

“Heedlessness and a disregard of the principle which underlies the granting of pension are unfair to the wounded, crippled soldier who is honored in the just recognition of his Government. Such a man should never find himself side by side on the pension-roll with those who have been tempted to attribute the natural ills to which humanity is heir to service in the Army. Every relation of principle in the granting of pension invites applications without merit and encourages those who, for gain, urge honest man to become dishonest. Thus is the demoralizing lesion taught the people, that as against the public treasury the most questionable expedients are allowable.”

The bachelor, Grover Cleveland, would marry Oscar Folsom's daughter Frances. This wedding took place in the Blue Room of the White House on June 2nd, 1886. Grover was 25 years older than Frances and started courting her while he was Governor of NY! Frances would be the most popular First Lady until Jacqueline Kennedy. Frances and Grover had 5 children (3 daughters, 2 songs). Daughter Ruth died in 1904 of diphtheria. Ester was the first baby born at the White House in 1893. Both Frances and Grover did not support women suffrage.

In 1887, Cleveland reiterated the long-time prevailing view of most Democrats calling the tariff schedules “vicious, inequitable, and illegal sources of unnecessary taxation.” Cleveland lost in 1888 because he, like Taft in 1909, did not run from tariff revision. He would go on to lose in 1888, partly due to tariff issues. 

Before Ester was born, Cleveland would win the popular vote against Benjamin Harrison, but would lose the electoral college and thus, the presidency. Before leaving the White house, Frances had the most interesting conversation with Executive Mansion's Staff Jerry Smith:

“Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, and not let any of them get lost or broken, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again.”

Asked when (the Cleveland's) are coming back, Frances said, “We are coming back just four years from today.”

Grover and Frances with surviving children at the Princeton home in 1907.

Cleveland 2.0

Right after starting his second term, the Panic of 1893 began with bank failures and run on banks due to a loss of faith in the gold standard followed by a retraction of the money supply by 6.3%. Cleveland, however, was a hard-money Democrat while current Republicans were behind the gold standard, but behaved inflationary. The panic ended after Cleveland's administration repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1892. This bill gave unrestricted coinage of silver and drained America of gold, the farmer could not sell his crops and the city man could not sell his labor. 1896 became Gold v. Silver, which was a fight between the privileged few and impoverished many.

During his second term, Cleveland wanted to veto the Wilson-Gorman Act of 1894, but because it was a compromise, he allowed it to become law without a signature! The Wilson-Gorman Act was essentially a revision of the McKinley tariff. It would be the first downward tariff since 1861. Unfortunately, it would split the Democratic party. An interesting note about tariffs and politics is that neither side remains happy. 

A major even occurred in 1894 when Congress passed an income tax measure. A lawyer named Joseph Choate said,  this was based on “principles as communistic, Socialistic - what shall I call them? - populistic as ever have been addressed to any political assembly in the world.” The Supreme Court, in a famous 5 - 4 ruling, ruled that Federal Income tax was unconstitutional. In 1912, this would all come back to haunt us.

The term ‘conservationism’ was not in American politics until Teddy Roosevelt. Cleveland in his second term would set aside for preserving forests in Wyoming's Grand Tetons, Washington's Olympic Peninsula and Mount Rainier and South Dakota's Black Hill. This effort would see the National Forest Reserve double by the end of his time in office. In 1894, Cleveland signed the first legislation to protect wildlife on federal lands, a law that prevented the killing of animals in Yellowstone. On February 22, 1897, right before he left office, Cleveland created 13 new forest reserves totaling 22 million acres. He defended himself nine years later in his book called Fishing & Shooting Sketches. “The criticisms and persecutions from mendacious newspapers and shameless western politicians were nothing more serious than gnat stains suffered on the bank of a stream.”

The Pullman Strike of 1894 became a very historic clash during Cleveland's second term and one where the role of his office would be challenged. In Chicago, the economic downtown left workers of the Pullman Palace Car Factory with less wages and higher cost of living since George Pullman cut salaries by 20 - 35% and left worker housing costs high, though rents in Chicago fell. Employee delegation appealed to the company where George said, you can take it or join the unemployed. Each dispute would be backed by national institutions: The workers were backed by the American Railway Union (APU) led by Eugene Debbs and Pullman doubled down. Debbs pushed for arbitration, consistent with Cleveland who in his first term urged for a federal role in labor issues, proposing a three-member commission to arbitrate disputes between workers and management. But George Pullman refused, and implications went far from Chicago with more than 200,000 workers throughout America participating in the boycott.

A Circuit Judge by the name of William Howard Taft had to rule on a few of these cases where the right to strike vs. boycotting goods affecting interstate commerce became an issue. In court, it was shown that Debbs and others conspired to shut down trade of differing enterprise to affect the outcome with workers.

January 10, 2025 - Chester Arthur #21

Our 21st president was America's 4th unexpected president. He would also be the 4th widowed president and represent one of three presidents America would have in year 1881. The political machine of the Republican Party put him in position. Arthur would then turn against that machine as president. If you judge him specifically by the situation, you would rank him very high. Let's dive in!

Chester was born in Vermont in 1829. His father was a Baptist preacher who was from Northern Ireland. He preached reformed theology and was a strong abolitionist. The family moved to New York where Chester graduated from Union College in 1848. He served as Quartermaster of the New York State Militia during the Civil War. He then practiced law in New York and in 1854 was the lead attorney in the Elizabeth Jennings Graham, a black lady who was kicked off a train in New York. This case, which Arthur won, lead to desegregation of New York City streetcar lines.

During this time he met Ellen Lewis Herndon, who's father was Captain of the famous SS Central America. In 1857, Chester became engaged to “Nell” and the Central America sunk off North Carolina. Nell's father served his people getting them into life boats. He courageously died a hero's death as he went down with his ship. Chester and Nell got married in 1859, and their first son, named for her father, would die at two.

The Machine

The real start to his political career came when Arthur would be selected as New York as Collector of the New York Custom House in 1871 after Thomas Murphy was fired by Grant. The New York Custom House was operated by Federal appointments all of which were done through patronage. Senator Roscoe Conkling, leader o the “Stalwart” faction, controlled this. Arthur was sincere, had integrity in his professional and political life, but he strongly believed in the patronage system operated by ‘the machine.’ Whoever helped get Republicans elected deserved these patronage jobs.

During this time, Arthur was one of the guys. He would host at his house, stay up til 3 am drinking and talking. Once Hayes got into office, Hayes' commitment to civil service reform would start with the firing of Chester Arthur. Hayes made a few executive orders, but never got the legislation of Civil Service. One of the orders was to end the Assessments that Republicans forced on those who received patronage jobs. This angered Arthur.

The Republican Convention of 1880 attempted to bring back Ulysses Grant through the “Stalwart” faction. But a dark horse named James Garfield would receive the nomination. To appease the “Stalwarts”, they made Chester Arthur the VP nominee, which also angered Conkling! He felt as though he lost control of the party, but maybe his patronage minion would maintain his loyalty…

Arthur never thought about the presidential office. After Garfield was shot on July 2, 1881, the reality set in. Some even blamed Conkling and Arthur for the attempted murder of Garfield! It turns out that Charles Gitteau truly acted alone. By September, Garfield's condition was very bad. Arthur left his home in New York to visit with Lucretia “Crete” Garfield. Arthur was nervous for both Garfield and himself. After 20 minutes, he left her and met with Garfield's cabinet. This maybe my favorite statement and ultimately recognition from Arthur when he addressed the Cabinet:

“I pray to God that the president will recover. God knows I do not want the place I was not elected to.”

Arthur took the oath of office at his home in New York on September 20, 1881. He understood the reality of his not being elected to the presidency. Garfield died shortly after being taken to New Jersey. He was as solemn as when his wife Nell died. Crete and the family never came back to live in the White House, living instead with a political friend in Washington until all of Garfield's things were gone. The respect Arthur showed to the Garfield family continued to guide his policy.

Unexpected President

An interesting fact of Arthur's presidency began after his inauguration - letters written by a mysterious lady named Julia I. Sand. She was an unknown person to Arthur, herself and invalid after surviving a disease. She lived with her family in Washington and like many, kept up with politics. She decided to write Arthur a letter after the death of Garfield, challenging Arthur and his principle: 

“…Rise to the emergency. Disappoint our fears. Force the Nation to have faith in you. Show but the first you have none but the purest aims. It maybe difficult at once, to inspire confidence, but persevere. In time you have given reason for it, the country will love and trust you. Your name is now on the anals of history. You cannot sleek back into obscurity if you would. 100 years hence, schools boys will recite your name in the list of presidents and tell of your administration. And what shall posterity say? It is for you to choose what your record shall be written in black or in gold.”

Arthur read each of Julia's letters saving 23 until his death. He even showed up to her house to met her and her family one day in August of 1882. The letters may have had an effect on Arthur's conscious.The first things Arthur did was kept Garfield's Cabinet. It was then that Conkling assumed Arthur would replace New York Custom House William Robertson's collector position, but Arthur did not. The man who attained his power by the machine was now independently making decisions himself!

Arthur continued the path of Hayes and Garfield in terms of Civil Service Reform. Public opinion was behind him especially due to the death of Garfield. In January of 1883, Congress would finally pass the Pendleton Act which enabled a Civil Service Commission. Under Hayes, there were only a few Executive Orders made by Hayes but no formal law. Now we have a formal law supported by Arthur which forbade political assessments and created a ‘classified system’ which government employees would be hired through competitive exams. In the end, the law only affected about 10% of federal employees.

Arthur would also promote the protection of our harbors to strengthen the Navy. At this time, our Navy was still wooden ships with very few vessels. Other advanced countries already had steel ships built by this time. Arthur put Secretary of the Navy, William Chandler. I enjoy connecting the names through history. Does this name ring a bell? On the night of the 1876 election, it was Williams Chandler at RNC New York headquarters that went to the newspapers then telegraphed Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina to hold their states. This was the first act of a large sequence of events that stole the 1876 election and placed Hayes in office.

We also saw the first Federal immigration law during Arthur's presidency. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was signed into a law prohibiting for 10 years the importation of Chinese laborers to America. The law excluded criminals, paupers and lunatics. It was actually an attempt to exclude Chinese which Arthur did not initially fully support. He even received a letter from Julia Sand on this issue. Arthur sent back and congress lessened the exclusion to a certain number of years. Inevitably, the law made Chinese restriction permanent about 10 years later.

On economics, Arthur believed tariffs should be lowered to reduce the ‘embarrassing’ surplus of government. In the end, the ones lowered were raised by others in Congress by the Tariff Act of 1883. It did send Westerners and Southerns looking to the Democrat Party as this issue became strengthened.

At the end of 1884, Arthur took a trip to Florida, traveling through Jacksonville, St. Augustine and turning back in Kissimmee, Florida. In Savannah, he had what looked like a reaction to his supper. They thought he would die in his room on his boat. Arthur recovered, but was weak. Washington hid that he had a kidney disease called Bright's Disease. When the Republican Convention met in 1884, Arthur told William Chandler not to form a delegation as Arthur wanted the vote to come from the people. Knowing that each other candidate would have their delegation, this would be political suicide. Chandler did not understand. Arthur had other reason, namely his sickness.

James Blaine got the Republican nomination and would lose to Democrat Grover Cleveland. Arthur held his last reception on February 23, 1885 after attending the dedication of the Washington Monument. It took it 36 years to be completed. That summer, he attended the funeral of Ulysses Grant in New York where he rode in the carriage beside Rutherfod Hayes. Arthur did not receive pension off his $50,000 salary, but did not concern for money. His plan was to continue his law practice after being president.

By October 1886, Arthur himself became an invalid. He stayed in the second story of his house attended by his doctor and maid. He felt angry and guilty of his life before being president that he called an old cronie to come by the house. Arthur filled six large trash cans of letters from his ‘machine’ politic days and burned them. Arthur died in the same room his wife had died 9 years before. Newspapers gave significant praise to Arthur after his death included The Sun and the New York Times. The Sun published an account from a NY Senator recollection of conversation with Arthur after the senator expressed no further interest in running for office again.

“The highest political fame was but a mere bubble, no matter how iridescent its hues. And when it broke, it would be a spot of suds on the floor.” - Senator

“I feel that I am as strong as any man alive. And yet, yesterday, when the duties of the day were over, I held here a levy, standing to satisfy the curiosity of a crowd who wished simply to look upon the chief magistrate of the republic. Shaking each man and women of the 500 that came by the hand until all the electricity was taken out of me. And I went to bed like a crushed rag. Very true. Fame is a bubble, and broken is but suds.” - Chester Arthur

I believe Chester would have been a guy who you could talk to easily, who would listen more than talk. I think he was dry, however. I do not believe he was a Lincoln or Washington. But I have great respect for anyone who understands one's reality. The only loyalty he showed for Conkling was to nominate him to the Supreme Court, in which Conkling declined. Arthur acknowledged that he was not elected by the people. His respect for Garfield was found in his conviction to continue Garfield's administration, which inevitably turned against those who got him there. Anyone who turns against its own machine, I have great respect. That, in itself, takes great courage.

December 9, 2024 - #20 James Garfield

James Garfield would be the last president to be born in a log cabin, the fourth president to die in office and second to be assassinated. Catching a glimpse of Garfield in previous presidential biographies, I did not think much of him. However, the story of his life, political career and assassination renewed my interest in this president.

Born in Ohio in 1831, James Garfield's father died when he was two years old. This period is known as the highest orphan period in our country due to disease. Garfield was with his mom, who would live through his residence in the White House, and his brothers. Garfield worked in the Eerie Canal driving canal boats. As a teenager, he almost lost his life when he fell overboard and nearly drowned. It was something that stayed with him a long time.

He came back and attended school and college at Williams College in MA in 1856. He then became a teacher at what today is called Hiram College in Ohio where he would teach a young lady named Lucretia “Crete” Rudolph. Her father was a well-known farmer and citizen of Hiram. But he had met Crete in 1853 while they attended this school. They courted slowly until marrying in 1858.

Garfield become the president of Hiram College , and then elected to Ohio state senate in 1859. Before the Civil War broke out, Garfield believed the South should be coerced into the Union. Garfield was an Abolitionist, Anti-Slavery Republican when he served in the Civil War from 1861 - 1863. He did not fight in significant battles, but made it to brigadier general and then major general of volunteers. He was 31 at this time.

While he was in the war, Garfield was elected to the U.S. Congress from Ohio. He initially did not want to leave his troops, but Lincoln had the generals for the war. He needed Republican support in Congress and persuaded Garfield o resign commission. Garfield would win re-election for the next 18 years.

During the war, James and Crete lost their first child as a baby then their second child at the age of two. James and Crete were alt to lie together in Washington and Ohio after James freshman year as congressman. They went on to have five children. So how did Garfield become president?

1880 Republican Convention

First, it should be noted that Garfield was identified as a “Half-Breed” Republican. During this time, the GOP was divided between the “Stalwarts” and “Half-Breeds." The “Stalwarts” were the old “Radical Republicans" of the Reconstruction era, Thaddeas Stevens and Charles Sumner. Remember that Rutherford Hayes came as the reformer of federal government patronage. During Grant's administration, the "Radicals" became the “Stalwarts” led by Roscoe Conkling of New York during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age (1870s - 1880s). The “Stalwarts” control of Republican patronage power came through the New York Custom House.

In the 1880 election, the Stalwart Republicans decided that Ulysses Grant would be their best option since he had four years off. He and Julia toured much of the world and people had forgotten about his corrupt administration. At the 1880s Republican National Convention in Chicago, Roscoe Conkling would give his speech for Grant. Garfield, now seen as the leader of the House of Representatives, would give a speech for John Sherman. There was also another man from Maine named James Blaine who would be considered a run against Grant. But something incredible happened when Garfield took the stage to speak on Sherman's behalf.

James Garfield, like Conkling, stood off from the main podium. Unlike Conkling, Garfield gave his speech off-the-cuff. Garfield was known mostly for one thing at this time: He as a great orator. He did not mention John's name until almost the very end. This made attendees think Garfield himself was the candidate! He was not, and it was made clear.

“….As I sat in my seat and witnessed this demonstration, this assemblage seemed to me a human ocean in tempest. I have seen the sea lashed into furry and tossed into spray, and its grandeur moves the soul of the dullest man. But I remember that it is not the billows, but the calm level of the sea of which all heights and depths are measured.”

The Republican National Convention in Chicago on June 2, 1880 nominated for president and vice president two men unexpected to win its nomination.

The delegates voted the next day. Grant’s biggest lead in the first vote, but not enough to secure. Each vote, delegates continued more for Garfield, who did not intend on being a nominee. More and more delegates moved to Garfield, even in states where the “Stalwarts” had control. Then Garfield became another “dark horse” nominee on the 36th ballot went on to be elected president over Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock.

The First 200 Days

I didn't think much of Garfield as I skimmed his name in previous biographies. Before he was murdered, Garfield served in office in a political battle that I wish could have played out further. It was a fight that has given me much respect for this man, and a fight I appreciate. After his election, Garfield needed to set the tone that the “machine” of the Republican party was not going to control him.

During his campaign, Garfield needed Conkling to make speeches for him. A story I remember is Garfield traveling to New York to meet with Conkling, who was still not happy of Garfield's nomination. But Conkling felt a little better that his protege, Chester Arthur, was made Vice Presidential nominee. At this meeting, Conckling never showed up! He instead sent men to negotiate on his behalf. Garfield was annoyed and felt disrespected.

Once elected, Garfield had the chance to nominate “Stalwarts” in his cabinet. It is said that Crete guided Garfield on his cabinet. Well, not only did Garfield make no offers to any “Stalwarts” in his cabinet, Garfield selected James Blaine as his Secretary of State. This was a major knock to Conkling as Conking and Blaine had been political enemies on no speaking terms since the 1860s. But the real drama started when Garfield submitted Federal appointments to the Senate. Many were Conkling's friends, but for the New York Customhouse went to William Robertson, another Conkling adversary and no “Stalwart." the New York Custom House that gave Conkling the power over patronage for his machine. After Conkling attempted to persuade the Senate to block it, Garfield said,

“This…will settle the question whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States…. shall the principal port of entry … be under the control of the administration or under the local control of a factional senator.”

 Conkling approved all former appointments but adjourned before Robertson's. Garfield then withdrew all the former nominees, which were “Stalwarts.” This is where it get good. Conkling decided he would throw a major curve ball by he and his fellow-senator from New York resigned their seats, greatly assuming their legislature would re-elect them. It was a very bold move to say the least! When the vote for their seats came back not Conkling or the other won. It was an incredible defeat for Garfield, and he was only playing defense.

A Martyr for the Republic

Garfield's presidency and life would end in the most twisted sequence of events you could imagine. Garfield and Blaine were walking into the Baltimore and Pacific Railroad Station in Washington on July 2nd, 1881 when suddenly a man names Charles Guitteau shot Garfield in the back. No one knew the bullet missed his liver and rested above his pancreas. Lying on the floor in the train station, throwing up and losing blood, the first doctor immediately probed his finger into Garfield's back to locate the bullet. Abraham Lincoln's son, Robert Lincoln, summoned another doctor named Dr. Doctor Willard Bliss. He was named “Doctor” because this is what his family wanted him to become. The problem was many doctors like Dr. Bliss did not believe the evidence of Joseph Lister and Louis Pasteaur in regards to microscopic bacteria causing infection. This would prove more fatal than the bullet itself.

Garfield was taken to the White House and set up in a room where five total doctors looked at him. Dr. Bliss took over the care, with no permission from the family. He ordered a probe which would be inserted in Garfield's wound to locate the bullet. This probe was used on Garfield numerous times, and of course very painful. He had numerous broken ribs as well. For the next three months, Garfield's condition would ebb and flow as the bacteria from their fingers and probe grew inside of him. He could not eat, lost a significant amount of weight.

A third and incredible piece to his end was the help Garfield received Alexander Graham Bell. After patenting the telephone displayed at the 1876 Centennial Fair, Graham used the method of induction in an effort to locate the bullet inside Garfield. He worked on his apparatus at his home before bringing it to the White House. Graham tried multiple times to locate the bullet for the doctors. The only problem was that the doctors had Graham on the wrong side of Garfield's body. There was one time where Graham did pick up something, but thought it was an issue with his invention, not the bullet.

In September, Garfield was taken to New Jersey for some Atlantic air. He died almost 3 months after being shot. The focus on this biography was his torturous death, and I believe this should be written. The only good thing that came from his death was the autopsy. It showed the bullet was not where they searched. A canal of infection was likely picked up by Morgan's machine. It proved that infection, which was induced by the doctors, killed Garfield.

Garfield was not of the talented leaders our country has seen, and likely would not have been anymore successful than anyone else. But he did stand up against the corrupt ‘machine’ of the Conkling faction in his short 200 days. He was a principled man, nonetheless.

August 22, 2024 - #19 Rutherford B. Hayes

One of the many unknown presidents of the Gilded Age was Rutherford Birchard Hayes born in 1822 in Vermont. His mother, Sophia, had experienced nearly every loss as ‘Rud’ was born. Her husband, ‘Rud’s' father died just before. Sophia's mother and father died a few years before. She and a few sisters were all that was left. They moved with ‘Rud’s' uncle Silas to a town in Ohio called Delaware.

Hayes, his sister Fanny, mother Sophia and Uncle Silas grew up close to one another. Their town became known as Fremont, Ohio. In college, Rud was interested in the debate society and the Whig party. After college he became a lawyer working in Cincinnati. His uncle did alot for the family, eventually investing in a property called Speigel Grove. Hayes also met his wife Lucy, and they married soon after.

Hayes did not believe the South should be forced to stay in the Union, but he believed slavery was wrong and should be delt with. He enlisted in the 23rd Ohio Regiment to fight in the Civil War. Between Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Hayes fought in a battle called South Mountain where his left arm was nearly shot off. He almost bled out, passing out in the corn field where other soldiers recused him. Hayes was known by all who knew him to be a warrior and fighter.

During the war Hayes was actually elected to Congress, but stayed until the war was over. Ulysses Grant mentioned this in his memoir which pleased Hayes. Hayes served a term in Congress then became Governor of Ohio. He served two terms of Governor and would be the only two-term Ohio governor for many years. When the election of1876 arrived, Grant promised not to run for a third term. With Reconstruction ongoing in the South, people in the North were becoming disinterested in negro disenfranchisement. Support for military troops in the South and military funding was weaning.

Fraud of the Century

The election of 1876 was Rutherford Hayes against Samuel Tilden of New York and is detailed in a book called Fraud of the Century by Roy Morris, Jr. This election is a famous stolen election as South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana states could not be decided because voter intimidation and ballot fraud from both sides. The Democrats were threatening Negros and Southern Republicans, and Federal troops were aiding Republicans. It was proposed that a committee in the legislatures and Supreme Court Justices decide each state. Oregon interestingly opened this up by its Democrat governor not sending delegates for Hayes. One of the delegates was post master general, which meant he could not be a delegate. So, Oregon sent a Tillden delegate in his place, which would inevitably make Democrats question the delegates in SC, LA and FL.

The Electoral Commission was initially split between 5 Republican and 5 Democrat congressmen and senators and 2 Democrat and Republican Supreme Court justices. Initially, David Davis of Illinois was a known Independent being appointment by Lincoln in 1862. However, after the election, Davis resigned his seat on the commission. His place was taken by Republican Joseph P. Bradley of New Jersey, appointed to the Supreme Court in 1870 by Grant. Bradley appealed to southerners with his role in the United States v. Cruikshank decision to limit Fed government's power to enforce the 15th Amendment. A major skeleton was in his closet with Tom Scott, monopolist who was granted ownership of bankrupt Memphis, El Paso and Pacific Railroad Co by Bradley's issue while a judge for Western District of Texas in 1870. Who had talked with the railroads about a new railroad from Texas to Pacific Coast? This made the entire committee one more Republican than Democrat. Each state electors would be decided by this committee.

Rutherford Hayes was secretly sworn in as president on March 3rd at the White House to avoid a last-minute action by Tilden and his supporters. The photo above is his publicly repeated oath on March 5th on the steps of the Capitol. This drew close one of the most corrupt presidential elections in our history. 20,000 people witnessed it.

Hayes was inaugurated knowing the North was disinterested in negro affairs, and Congress did not want to spend money on military increases. Hayes did not want troops to stay in the South forever as this did not look right for a free society. He allowed the propped up state government in South Carolina under Hampton and Louisiana to be claimed by Democrats. Hayes believed strongly in supporting rights of negros in the south ensuring enforcement of the14th and 15th Amendments and would be the last president to do so.

His second issue was the Great Strikes of 1877, where railroad workers were striking because of low pay. This of course due to overbuilt railroads like Northern Pacific by Jay Cooke. He had sold Northern Pacific bonds as he did government securities. The railroad companies were highly competing during this time, which there were about six in the U.S. Strikers interfered with railroad travel and mail, which politically, justified troops. Some state troops were called and clashes between strikers occurred. Where the few Federal troops were called, Hayes was grateful that no one was killed by Feds.

A great attribute to Hayes was his support of specie (gold and silver) resumption to reduce inflation. The Resumption Act passed in 1875, but the money did not contract because Republicans did not have the will to do it. Resumption was finally achieved in 1879 after significant sales of U.S. bonds for gold in Europe by Secretary of the Treasury Sherman. The country then moved on to an issue with silver, which had been undervalued by mint ratios since 1834. In the 1870s, the silver value suffered more due to European nations shifting from silver to gold standard and the discovery of silver mines in Nevada. Two subtle bills during Grant's administration demonetized silver ending legal tender quality, called “The Crime of 1873.” Had this not been the case, overvalued silver would have flowed into the country. But in the end, the administration submitted to the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 (over the veto of President Hayes), which mandated that the Treasury purchase $2 million to $4 million of silver per month from then on. The “crime against silver” because the silver agitation for the rest of the century. Those in support of silver agitation were actually champions of greenbacks, inflation and saw this as a “hard-money” way to increase American currency. Nonethless, during the term of President Hayes, prices stabilized and the country reduced its $2 billion debt.

Hayes and Lucy had many grown-up children by this time. Hayes did not profess any religion, but Lucy claimed to be Methodist. They both attended a Methodist church while in DC. They were both supporters of the temperance movement. Lucy planned lots of White House events, and they never served alcohol. Hayes did not believe in prohibition, however.

Civil Service Reform

Hayes' greatest accomplishment was civil service reform. Since Andrew Jackson presidency, whoever was the victor is who the spoils belonged. The Federal jobs would be appointed to those who supported the party. Hayes fought this with the New York Custom house and post office. He actually fired the head of the Custom house, Chester Arthur. Hayes enacted tests to determine qualification of workers. He did not have alot of support from other Republicans like Roscoe Conkling of NY. Conkling's faction never supported Hayes. Though Hayes became the first president to support civil service reform, he could only accomplish it in minor legislation. It was not until 1883 when civil service reform finally became supported by Congress through the Pendleton Act.

Hayes was a progressive as in his retirement he fought hard for universal education and prison reform. He sat on the Slater Fund Board in NY and served with the Emory College (Emory University) president.

Hayes had a backbone and was very sincere about the Constitution. He believed the Executive had appointment rights where as long-term Congressmen like James Garfield believed Congress had those rights. Hayes was a popular incumbent thanks to the economy and his defeat of Rosco Conkling's leadership of Republicans. Hayes lived until 1892 dying a few years after Lucy at Speigel Grove. His sons and daughter Fanny were successful. Hayes was once pictured with his grandchild in the book as well.

August 7, 2024 - Panic of 1873

After the Civil War, the paper currency called greenbacks had lost its value. There was talk of resuming specie (hard money) payment by the “Loan Bill” of 1866. However the Pennsylvania 'iornmasters' realized a falling dollar and rising gold price made domestic prices cheaper and imported prices higher, functioning as an extra tariff. Simply put, inflation depreciates faster than prices rise. In addition, gold speculators were betting on higher prices of gold. After the U.S. Supreme Court decision of Knox v. Lee, two new railroad lawyer judges, appointment by Grant, rendered paper money Constitutional after the former Court under Hepburn v.Griswold did not. By this time, state banks began to boom as deposit-creating institutions. State banks pyramided on top of national banks. Total state and national bank notes and deposits rose from $835 million in 1865 to $1.964 billion in 1873 (135 % increase). The reserve pyramiding and excessive deposit creation were a large part of the panics of 1873, 1884, 1893 and 1907.

There was not a “great depression”, however. Why? How can you have “depression” with a large expansion of industry, railroads, output of net national product or real per capita income? From 1869 - 1879, there was 3% increase per year on money national product, real national product growth of 6.8% per year and 4.5% per year in real product per capita - alot! What about the supply of money they said was contracted? It never happened. Money supply increased by $1.964 billion to $2.221 billion (2.7%) in that 10 years.

Most historians and economists are conditioned to believe that a fall in prices means depression. They overlook the fact that in the natural course of events, when government and the banking system DO NOT increase the money supply rapidly, the market results in an increase of production and economic growth spreading the increase living standards to all consumers. The Panic of 1873 did not initiate a "great depression," but instead caused bankruptcies in over-inflated banks and in railroads riding the tide of government subsidy and bank speculation.

This summary written from “A History of Money and Banking in the United States: The Colonial Era to WWII,” Murray Rothbard, p. 147 - 160

June 26, 2024 - #18 Ulysses S. Grant

The family of Ulysses Grant came to American soil in the 1630s as Puritans. His father Jesse was 6th generation of Grants moving from Connecticut to Pennsylvania to Ohio. In 1821, Jesse Grant married Hannah Simpson. One year later, they had a son named Hiram Ulysses. His mom noted that as a child he was earnest and not rebellious. Everything was a business - even playing. He worked in his Father's tannery, which he did not like.

Ohio Congressman, Thomas Hamer, would recommend him to West Point. Grant arrived there in 1839 where he was not called ‘Hiram’. Hamer knew him as Ulysses and assumed that was his first name. Oddly, Hamer recorded Grant's middle initial as “S” assuming the name “Simpson” from Grant's mother. His name at the Academy became U.S. Grant. This would be ironic that he would one day be President. Grant did not care much for West Point, the classes, the dress and its rules. He was glad to get out. But he was never successful on his own.

He met a girl named Julia from a slave owning family in Kentucky. Grant attempted to work on his own being helped by his father. I'm not sure if it was drinking (which Grant was blamed later) or just inability to manage himself. His father made him move to St. Louis and work with his brother - until the Civil War started. Grant was not strong in opinion or politics. He did not believe secession was right, but did not have much opinion on slavery. His first troops were in Missouri where he was involved in the situation where Confederates were attempting to assume control.

Grant was part of the biggest day for the Civil War as both Gettysburg and Vicksburg happened on the same day, July 3rd, of 1863 and became the first turning point for the Union. Julia and the kids visited Grant in Vicksburg along with William Sherman's family. After leaving, one of Grant and Sherman's boys each came down with fever. Grant's son lived and Sherman's died, likely of Typhoid fever.

Grant would go East to fight with Sherman at Chattanooga and then against Lee in Spotsylvainia, Virginia. When Grant accepted the surrender from Lee at Appomattox Court House, his men began to cheer and fire their weapons. Grant silenced them saying, “The Confederates are now our prisoners. We do not want to exalt over their downfall.”

Grant was one, like Stonewall Jackson, who was better during battle than civilian life. Unlike Jackson, Grant had a very vindictive personality. He despised any General who criticized and rival him. This met with serious implications for William S. Rosecrans, George Thomas, “Fighting Joe” Hooker and Gouverneur Kimbell Warren. Grant used his memoirs to sabotage the reputations of these men. Thanks to a court of inquiry, which Grant obstructed for 14 years, it was proven that Grant, not Sheriden, chose to remove Warren from command just before Appomattox. Frank Varney covers this topic well in two books including The Verdict of History: Memoir, Memory, and the Civil War.

In the end, the North won because they had the men and the supplies the South did not have. The battles against Robert E. Lee at the very end were bad with thousands dying. Grant realized that for every man he lost, he could replace where Lee could not. The Confederates could no longer be fed, and Lee could not stop them from dissenting.

Grant became the key and obvious Republican nominee during the chaotic Reconstruction period. Grant split with Johnson after the Senate did not approve Johnson implanting Grant as interim War Secretary. This was accomplished through the Tenure of Office Act, designed to reduce Johnson's power by Radical Republican. The drama also made Grant the likely Republican nominee after the Impeachment Trial of President Johnson.

In the fall of 1868, all but three former Confederate states had been readmitted to the Union. Georgia, Alabama and Texas had chosen to remain under army control rather than ratify the 14th Amendment. Grant achieved victory in the Electoral College, but only won the popular vote by a few hundred thousand. Interestingly, the 14th Amendment allowed approximately 500,000 blacks to vote. Grant received a notable minority of the overall white vote in the country. The new amendment, which was forced on Southern states, essentially allowed Grant to win.

In May of 1869, two months after Grant's inauguration, he had many challenges particularity with the gold and railroad industry. Grant's first political encounter was foiling the attempt of two controllers of the Eerie Railroad, Jay Gould and James Fisk, attempt to corner the gold market by selling $4 million in gold. They had a connection to Julia's brother, Abel Corbin. They realized the price of gold could be figured out by how much the federal government sold per month. Their scheme did not work against Grant who sniffed it out. The real issue was the federal debt which went from $64.7 million in 1860 to $2.32 billion in 1866.

Grant's administration saw the first question of the constitutionality of legal tender making it to the Supreme Court. The Greenback question reached the U.S. Supreme Court in 1867 and was decided in February of 1870 in Hepburn v. Griswold. Ironically, it was Chief Justin Salmon P. Chase who delivered the decision and denounced his own actions as secretary of the Treasury as unnecessary and unconstitutional.  This decision did not sit well with the railroads who would have to pay their debt in more valuable gold rather than greenbacks. In an amazing twist, there became two vacancies on the Supreme Court, which would allow Grant to appoint the judges. He appointed two judges who former railroad lawyers. In May of 1871, they reconsidered the question and reversed the Court in Knox v. Lee. Paper money would be held consonant with the U.S. Constitution.

The Democrats led by Senator Penddleton of Ohio and the Republicans could never get straight what they believed about Resumption of specie or expansion of Greenbacks. When the “Inflation Bill” was passed in 1874, Grant vetoed it. I respect the fight Grant put up against the first Deep State of America. This period is when America became the Oligarchy it is today. The big business funds the politicians to write its laws. This quote from Grant I found to be my favorite:

“The business of the military is war, and war is simple and straight forward. In war the objective is plain, and measure of success undeniable. Your side wins or it loses. You live or you die. War is brutal, but its brutality allows differences of opinion to resolve definitively. In politics, things are never so straightforward. In politics, differences of opinion are rarely resolved and almost never definitively. In politics, the best outcomes are typically compromises that leaves all parties grumbling. In politics, the ignorant and venal have as much right to their votes as the educated and upstanding.”

Grant was simple and saw things as they were. Grant's administration, however, was known for being corrupt. Black Friday, the Gould attempt to corner the gold market, the Emma Mine affair, in which American ambassador to Great Britain helped peddle shares in a worthless Nevada silver mine to his hosts, and the Credit Mobilier scandal, in which officers in the frenchified holding company skimmed large profits from the subsidized Union Pacific Railroad and likely bribed his Vice President Schuyler Colfax, James Blaine and James Garfield. Another major scandal was with his secretary Orville Babcock and the “Whiskey Ring”. These four or five in the ring withheld a percentage of the tax to the US Treasury to fund propaganda for Grant for the 1872 election. He was severely let down by many of his men who took money from different industry while serving.

In the end, Grant enjoyed the popularity of the people. He opted out for a third term. He and Julia toured the world visiting many foreign leaders in the months following his presidency. Back home his son Fred got into investing company with another gentleman in New York. Julia and Grant had saved their money and gave Fred nearly all of it. What no one knew was that this bank was operating in the negative and about to go under. It lost all of Grant's money, which was a total heartbreak. Grant and Julia could not afford to pay housekeeping. At the same time, Grant began to feel a ‘scratchy’ feeling in his throat.

Grant smoked cigars routinely. He smoked during his Cabinet meetings. The throat got worse until he saw his doctor. He was initially diagnosed with a (I think) tumor that was benign. The newspapers wrote that he would get better. Unfortunately, it was throat cancer and it was malignant. His throat started to hurt worse as his voice became affected. He was approached by a representative of a publishing company to write his recollection of the Civil War that could sell after his death. Grant talked it out and was set on doing business with this group. Then Grant was approached by a man named Thomas Clemens.

Mark Twain proposed a structure where Grant would write memoirs to be published in segments. Thomas knew how much it would sell and promised that it would be enough for Julia. Grant got out of the first agreement and signed on. He went to a place in Upstate New York to get fresh air. By this time, he could not talk and the pain was severe in his throat. He could not eat. He lost 20, then 30, then 40 pounds, but he kept writing. A few days after his final memories of the Civil War were put on paper, Ulysses Grant laid in the bed for the first time and went into a comma. He died the next day weighing under 100 lbs.

Grant's Memoirs did what Clemens promised and earned Julia almost $500,000.

April 11, 2024 - #17 Andrew Johnson

The Tailor president from Tennessee is often rated low being the first president to be impeached. I wanted to know why was the only southern Senator who remained loyal to the Union was so hated by Northern Unionists?

Andrew Johnson was born in 1808 and raised in a raw settlement called Raleigh, NC. His father died when he was young as he helped someone drowning in water and he succumbed to drowning himself.  Andrew grew up poor and uneducated. As a teenager he took an apprenticeship with a tailor and learned the trade. He then moved to Greenville, TN, met and married Eliza McCardle and married in 1827. Written in his account book as a Tennessee Tailor, he charged $3.50 for a coat, $1.50 for pants, $3.50 for vests, and $10.00 for a suit. His business as a tailor grew significantly, and he moved toward politics. The business moved well, and he turned toward politics.

Eliza was well educated and taught Andrew speaking skills. He joined a debate society at Greenville College. He used his debating skills to be elected to the Tennessee legislature as James K. Polk was Governor. Johnson lost his first election, but would not lose another election until after the Civil War. He went on to the U.S. House of Representatives, Senator, Vice President and President.

Johnson's political position was for the mechanics and farmers of America, believing in a strict constructionist interpretation of the Constitution - a Jeffersonian and Jacksonian. He believed in hard money, low tariffs and the Union. Johnson proved great political skill as he worked his way through politics. He pushed the Homestead Bill as U.S. Congressman, but he would be known for something very significant after the southern states seceded.

Andrew Johnson was the only southern senator to remain loyal to the Union. Everyone else went home as their state seceded. Interestingly, East Tennessee was home to many loyalists, where middle and west TN sided with the Confederacy. This was the case in other states as well. There were pockets in the South of people who did not want to secede, and before, did not want Independence from Great Britain.

After Lincoln raised 75,000 troops to invade the South, the western theater was more successful than the eastern theater. Once Fort Donelson was captured, the Union had more control of Tennessee and Lincoln put Andrew Johnson as a military governor of his home state. There became lots of trouble with Confederates in East Tennessee, so his family - Eliza and their five children - moved to Nashville. Johnson believed Secession to be unconstitutional and treason. “Treason must be made odious and traitors… punished and impoverished.”

Johnson also had no issues with slavery and like Lincoln and most folks then, did not believe the negro man to be equal to the white man. He went along with Emancipation, but did not put slavery over the Union saying, “I am for my Government with or without slavery, but I either the Government or slavery must perish, I say give me the Government and let the negroes go.” 

As the presidential election neared, it was no guarantee that Lincoln would win since the war was going so badly in the eastern theater. This is one reason Lincoln chose Johnson to be his VP, as a concession to Democrats and the South. Lincoln lived to see Lee surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court house. Lincoln actually had one meeting with his cabinet on Reconstruction of the South before he was assassinated on April 14, 1865. John Wilkes Booth operated with a few other conspirators. Lewiss Powell attacked William Seward and George Azerdot was supposed to kill Andrew Johnson in his hotel room. But George chickened out.

Managers of the House of Representatives of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, Forbes Magazine Collection.

L - R, seated: Benjamin P. Butler, Thaddeus Stevens, Thomas Williams, John A. Bingham

L - R, standing: James F. Wilson, George S. Boutwell, John A. Logan

The moments after Lincoln died, Johnson actually though of the historical magnitude of the situation and even commented on history 100 years from now being shaped by his presidency. “With malice toward none; with charity for all…" Lincoln had set the model for Reconstruction. What would happen now that Lincoln was gone?

Andrew Johnson was clear in his beliefs that because secession was impossible, the states had never been out of the Union. (Interesting). The government's authority had been temporarily displaced by a hostile force, but since the rebel states had been reconquered, the Constitution and laws applied to them at once, “there is no such thing as reconstruction. These States have not gone out of the Union, therefore reconstruction is not necessary.”  Johnson believed it would have been better to have let the rebel states secede without firing a gun than to treat them as conquered territories to be governed by military authority. This is important to understand before studying Reconstruction.

Johnson decided to restore the Southern states as quickly as possible, under Executive authority and without calling a session of Congress. He also believed he had no authority to interfere with suffrage rights in the states, which is firmly laid out in the Constitution. His ideas of Reconstruction were very different than those of the radical platform of Congress. Lastly, Acts of Reconstruction could not be put into law since Southern states WERE NOT represented in Congress.

Johnson ended up vetoing all Reconstructions Acts submitted by the legislature. He also vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau's Bill and Civil Rights Bill. This angered the radicals of Congress like Thaddeus Stevens and Benjamin P. Butler. Essentially, Johnson saw through what Congress was attempting to do: punishing the South through Reconstruction. Slavery was gone by the 13th Amendment, but he did not want to see the South's institutions thwarted. But to accomplish this, Johnson had to work with Congress. This is where things fell apart.

The vetoes alienated Johnson from Congress and Edwin Stanton fought with Johnson over military rule. Essentially Johnson appeased Southerns by putting in territorial governors that favored the south. Southern states did not like the attempt by Congress to put the 14th Amendment, allowing black suffrage, in Reconstruction legislation. At the same time, Military leaders in the South were turning a blind eye to rights of the freedmen. This put Johnson at odds with Stanton, but Johnson being unable to fire him over the Tenure of Office Act.

It was a very difficult time in Washington, because there were no GREAT leaders and few GOOD leaders. Interestingly, most of Lincoln's cabinet remained with Johnson and he maintained a good relationship with William H. Seward and Giddeon Wells. But Johnson managed to fire Stanton in hopes to replace him with Grant, who declined, then Sherman, who also declined. By this time, the 11 Articles of Impeachment were brought aginst Johnson.

The first two articles of impeachment were very weak, citing no crime committed by Johnson. But in early 1868, when Johnson tried to replace Stanton, Thaddeus Stevens had his case. 11 Articles of Impeachment were brought before congress mostly over Johnson breaking the Tenure of Office Act. The heavily Republican Senate needed ¾ or 36 “guilty” votes to oust Johnson. Or Johnson needed 19 votes to be acquitted. With 9 Democrats and 3 Johnson Republicans set to vote for the president, a book called Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson tells the story and drama of the 7 Republican defectors would ultimately save him.

In 1868, Andrew and Eliza had lost one son in the Civil War and another was an alcoholic. Their daughter Martha lived with them in the White House because Eliza had tuberculosis, which made her unable to host.

The “great criminal of the age” was impeached for essentially misapplying a personnel statute. Johnson was acquitted in the Senate by the vote of Edmond Ross. Between a money laundering scheme devised by the Astor Group of Horace Greeley in NY and another group in Kansas, diminishing health of Thaddeus Stevens and threat of far radical Ben Wade becoming U.S. President, Johnson was acquitted. He finished his term with no more drama and signed to admit the remaining states to the Union.

Johnson and Eliza went home to Tennessee where Johnson again wanted to get back in politics. He ran for Congress against a former ally and lost. This was his first loss since 1837. Later he won a seat in the Senate in 1875, but died the same year of a stroke at the house of his daughter. Eliza lived another few years before she died. Johnson's defense lawyer, Benjamin Curtis, may answer our question after all:

“He is a man of few ideas, but they are right and true, and he could duffer death sooner than yield up or violate one of them. He is honest, right-minded, and narrow-minded; he has no tact, and even lacks discretion and forecast. But he is as firm as a rock.”

February 27, 2024 - #16 Abraham Lincoln

One of the most well-known presidents of our history, Abraham Lincoln, to me, is best described as the right man for the moment. It would be between Lincoln and Washington who would preside over the most difficult time in our county. But unlike Washington, Lincoln was a self-made man from the frontier. The next truly self-made man to be president after Andrew Jackson.

Lincoln had virtually one year of education in his life. He was named for his grandfather, Abraham, who was shot by an Indian while working in his garden. Abraham's father was about 8 years old and witnessed his father dying in the field. Two other brothers witnessed his death also. Lincoln's father would marry Nancy Hanks and move further west to Kentucky then Indiana. They built a log cabin with three walls where Abraham would be born. Sadly Lincoln's mother died when he was 9 years old, from an all-too-common ‘Milk Disease’ which came from eating meat from an animal that previously ate a toxic weed.

Lincoln schooled himself since his father worked him in the fields. The son was under ownership of he father until he turned 21. Lincoln wanted to read. He would read book in all his spare time. Once he left home, he moved to Salem, Illinois, he met and courted a girl named Ann Rutledge. His love for her was immeasurable. I believe there is not enough written on this subject, but its impact on Lincoln's life carry the most weight since Ann died before they married. This I believe is what put Lincoln into severe depression and a largely melancholy state for the rest of his life. Lincoln the Unknown by Dale Carnegie covers this well.

Lincoln later met a girl name Marry Todd from a wealthy Lexington, Kentucky family Through Mary's sister, Lincoln courted Mary and actually chickened out in their first attempt to marry. Lincoln did not show up! (That would have been the next best decision he would make.) But again, he and Mary married in 1842. Mary's personality was opposite of Lincoln. She was very controlling and pushed him in politics. Mary had actually courted Stephen A. Douglas for a while and even claimed that she would “marry the President of the U.S.” Well, in 1860, Lincoln and Douglas would be on he ticket.

Lincoln's political ideology was of Henry Clay's, who Lincoln got to meet through Mary Todd's family. They believed in federal government funding of internal improvements, a high tariff and a national bank. Lincoln was a backwoods lawyer during this time and earned his reputation for common sense arguments of the law. He helped alot of people, notable and non, during his time on the circuit. He earned the name "Honest Abe." He served in the Illinois state legislature before running for U.S. Congress in 1846, where he served one term during President Polk's administration. Ironically, Lincoln gave one speech condemning the Mexican war which put his people of Illinois against him, since the west supported the war.

Lincoln came home to leave politics and maintain his law practice. But the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 drew him back in, due to his hatred of slavery. Stephen Douglas, who authored the bill and was Mr. Illinois. He gave speeches around the state in which Lincoln attended. The crowd would call on Lincoln to speak after Douglas and he did. This is where the Lincoln-Douglas debates started. People did not have entertainment then, and crowds would gather to hear political speeches. Douglas' people organized seven debates in 1858. Douglas dominated the early debates, but Lincoln learned to be more offensive and by the last debate, Lincoln held his own with Douglas over the morality of slavery.

The date of his Cooper Union Speech, February 27, 1860, famous photographer Matthew Brady took this photo o “Honest Abe” in which he later observed this picture put him in the White House.

William Seward of New York was the most popular Republican at this time and expected nominee. But Lincoln's delegates had a plan. That plan involved Seward's top supporter Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune. Horace is actually who thwarted Seward's nomination to Lincoln at the Chicago convention. Lincoln was technically a ‘dark horse’ candidate. The democrats were so divided that it was an easy win. Lincoln won a significant electorate college vote, but did not win the popular vote. Every southern state voted Democrat signaling the true divide in America. South Carolina succeeded officially in December after Lincoln was elected.

In the most remarkable scheme of any American leader, Lincoln designed a cabinet of political rivals. A book that covers this well is Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln by Doris Kearns. He used his cabinet to make the most difficult decisions from re-supplying Fort Sumpter to keeping and firing McClellan, to the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln annoyed his Generals by attempting to direct the war, but he also showed uncanny leadership by his handling of men and difficult situations.

The best of these stories is following the Battle of Gettysburg, which was essentially an accident. General Lee had moved his army into Pennsylvania in an offensive move which met Gen. George Meade's Union Army at Gettysburg. The South would likely have won except for Gen. J.E.B. Stuart could not make it around the Union lines due to the number of soldiers. This is what he would do in battles as intelligence for Gen. Lee. Stuart was not able to report to Lee of the reinforcements before Lee order Pickett's charge which ultimately became suicidal. After the battle, Gen. Meade had Lee's army trapped near a creek but did not pursue. Lee's army got away!

Lincoln could not believe this and wrote possibly the only “mean” letter to Meade about this horrible mistake and his frustration over Meade. But the letter never got to Gen. Meade because Lincoln put the letter in his desk. Lincoln knew if he sent Meade that letter, Meade would resign and Lincoln would lose a good general. This is what made Lincoln great in a difficult time. He knew people. He knew how to management people. He knew what to say and what not to say.

Gettysburg became the turning point for the war and allowed his re-election. 9,000 soldiers were killed in that small Pennsylvania town, which surpassed Mananas and Antietam as the largest loss of life on American soil - more than all other 19th century wars combined. Lincoln, like Jackson, believed in the Union. He would fight for the Union at all costs, even if he took the rights of his own citizens through suspension of Habeas Corpus, even is he used the Emancipation Proclamation as a political maneuver. But unlike Jackson, Lincoln could not stop the Civil War from happening.

January 1, 2024 - #15 James Buchanan

There are no audio books of presidents 13, 14 and 15. These biographies are old and long! This Buchanan biograph by Philip Klein published in 1962 was very good. Buchanan is often noted the worst among American presidents due to the turmoil of “Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion.” But Klein offers a much more objective perspective on Buchanan's life and political course and possibly why he was our only Bachelor President.

James Buchanan was born April 23, 1791 in Cove's Gap near Mercersburg, PA. His father had just immigrated from Ireland in 1783. Buchanan was the only son, raised in an ‘estrogen ocean’ with 5 little sisters.  Buchanan attended college in Lancaster where he was actually kicked out for drunkenness. They let him back in and he graduated at the top of his class.

His father was a staunch Federalist and a supporter of George Washington's administration. Buchanan did the basic county lawyer duties like criminal and civil suits, settled estates, arranged property transfers. He quickly got into state politics while Monroe was president. He found himself between party lines as he felt the control of business and politics by a closed corporation (the national bank) of the wealthy was not just. Buchanan had a respect for the will of the democracy, but he also had an equal respect for individual rights in property. The American Constitution, he thought, pulled together both of these concepts.

A story I found to be intriguing about his life is was his fiance, Ann Coleman. During their engagement, James worked alot. The Panic of 1819 had land selling fast and cheap. Ann began listening to her parents' gossip who claimed James did not treat her with the affection she deserved. So Ann wrote a note to James stating he was for her riches. This hurt Buchanan who responded politely but with no apology. It all would have went away if not for another event. James stopped by the house of Mrs. William Jenkins, who's husband was a good friend. Mrs. Jenkins sister was at the house who was a “pretty and charming young lady.”. Another lady told Ann Coleman of this, and she broke the engagement! But it does not end here.

Ann's mom told her to go to Philadelphia and see a play with her sisters. Ann was fine at her sister's until suddenly in the afternoon she hit a fit of ‘hysterics’ over the broken engagement. By night she had strong convulsions. Her family called a physician who thought it would go away. But her pulse weakened until at midnight she died. Dr. Chapman said it was the first instance in which hysteria produced death. Buchanan was devastated. Ann's family denied Buchanan requests to see Ann's corpse. It was devastating for James, and had a great impact on his life. It was likely the reason he would be our first and only bachelor president.

Buchanan would have the most decorated political life and experience before being President. After the Panic of 1819, he would join the newly formed Democrat Party. He would be a Jacksonian, anti-national bank, state's rights, a believer in the Republic, a strict Constitutionalist. He was a 5-time US Congressman and Senator for 10 years. He was Secretary of State to James Polk, Minister to Russia and Minister of Great Britain. He did all this and held together the Democrat Party in PA.

Interestingly, Buchanan was absent from every major political event of this time!!: Compromise of 1820, Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This maybe why he fit the Democratic nomination of 1856. He would beat the newly-formed Republican Party nominee John Fremont to become the first president from Pennsylvania. But it was not the time for anyone to be president, especially one who declined to be a dictator.

Buchanan was a similar politician to Fillmore and Pierce - he tried to stay the middle ground. He detested the sectional politics of both parties. This influenced his action or lack of action over the Lecompton Constitution during the Kansas crises. He did not like the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which led to this turmoil. He did not believe in ‘popular sovereignty’ like other Democrats. This I found interesting! Buchanan believed the nation was a republic, not a pure democracy. Citizens do not rule by direct vote; they delegated authority to representatives.

The most difficult of his presidency and life came after Lincoln was elected. In December of 1860, Buchanan had to manage South Carolina succeeding from the Union. What could he do and not do according to the Constitution? He had to defend and protect federal property. He could not wage war without Congress. He said he did not see succession as Constitutional, but also could not see force as Constitutional. He promoted a Constitutional Convention, but Republicans would not. Seward saw the potential loss of $250 million from contracts with the South and began to encourage Republicans to compromise. Lincoln remained silent, but was associated with the Radical Republicans who would never compromise.

“Many grievous errors were committed by both parties from the beginning but the most fatal of them all was the secession of the cotton States.” Even after secession, Congress had not only rejected compromise but had also “persistently refused to pass any measures enabling him or his successor to execute the laws against armed resistance, or to defend the country against approaching rebellion” was what Buchanan believe led to war.

The only argument to Buchanan actually stopping the war is Andrew Jackson. Remember when John C. Calhoun threatened that South Carolina would succeed? How did Jackson respond? Jackson threatened to come down there himself and fight them. That is how Jackson was - a crazy man. But you know what? It worked…

The only thing Buchanan married was the Constitution. He was principled. He believed this great invention in the art of self government would work only if people practiced self-restraint and to be willing to accommodate their differing ideas to the preservation of the system. A ‘strong’ president who overpowered or ignored Congress and the courts meant an executive who could destroy the republican form.

November 4, 2023 - #14 Franklin Pierce

I just finished a two part biography of our 14th president by Peter Wallner. This was an incredible biography of a president who is ranked very low on the list of presidents but had great positive impacts in his home state of New Hampshire and the Union. He has an incredible life story starting with his father Benjamin who fought in the Revolution under George Washington. His father held strong beliefs in the Jeffersonian principles of the Democratic government.

At Bowdoin college, Franklin would meet is wife Jane who later becomes America's First Lady. But not before Franklin and Jane lose all three of their children. Pierce was elected to U.S. Congress in 1835 during the rise of abolitionist movement. Most abolitionists knew slavery could not be abolished through legislation, as slavery was controlled by states. So when Pierce convened in his first congress in 1835, anti-slavery petitions were read calling for abolition of slavery in D.C. Since Northern representatives of New England traditionally were recognized first, Southern representatives had to listen to these petitions. Finally, James Hammond of S.C. moved that the petition just read by Representative Williams Jackson of M.A. be rejected, since Congress had no Constitutional authority to abolish slavery anywhere in the U.S. Pierce was now at a crossroads. He knew Congress was not going to act on these petitions, making them annoying and divisive, but rejecting a petition violated First Amendment rights. This ultimately led to the ‘Gag Rule’ as a compromise. Pierce was present in Congress when the divisive agitation was set that would split the Union to Civil War.

Pierce moved on to the Senate becoming the youngest Senator at age 31, but resigned in 1842, after his and Jane's second, Frank Robert, was dying of Typhoid Fever. He was then nominated by Polk to be Brigadier General in NH volunteer army since Polk's leading Generals were all Whigs. This sent Pierce to the War with Mexico where his troops were sent to join Winfield Scott's troops on the march to Mexico City. He had no idea that in 1852, he would run against his General in the Presidential election.

Pierce would become the nation's second Dark Horse candidate as Lewis Cass, James Buchanan, Stephen Douglas would not get the 2/3 needed. A group of men-tee politicians called the 'Concord Clique' planned his nomination by keeping it a secret. The country economically was doing well and in peace. The only issue was civil sectionalism such as Abolition, Anti-Catholicism and Temperance. Pierce received the nomination and defeated General Winfield Scott losing only 7 states and winning the popular vote.

It was a difficult beginning for Pierce in the White House as he was inaugurated just after his last son Benny (11) tragically died in a train wreck after leaving Jane's family for Christmas in MA. Jane did not attend his burial nor Franklin's inauguration. It would leave Jane with depression and grief her entire stay in the White House, and I believe her death in 1863. When Benny heard his father would run for president he wrote, "I hope he won't be elected for I should not like to be at Washington and I know you would not either."

His presidency started with a bang which ended up defining his four years. Authored and organized by Stephen A. Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Act marked the downhill movement to the Civil War. Pierce supported the bill which repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed popular sovereignty. Ironically, this bill was accomplished for northern farmers and railroad investors to buy federally subsided land but unfortunately became an issue over slavery.

Pierce was great with foreign policy with the canal in Central America to fight against British control of the panama canal. Our national debt was reduced significantly. America stayed at peace. Pierce was very honest and got rid of the corruption in the federal government. His generation was the 'plundering generation.' From Taylor to Grant administrations were riddled with corruption, except for Pierce. He had a great secretary of state William Marcy who shared Pierces conviction of the Constitution, limited Federal government and states rights.

Pierce was such a 'doughface' that many thought he was pro-slavery. Pierce was not pro-slavery and believed it to be immoral. He did not sympathize with the South. After the Civil War began, Pierce did sympathize with the North when Lincoln suspended the writ of Habeas Corpus along transportation routes between NY and Washington as well as imposing Martial Law throughout the North, "If the vital principles and guarantees of the Constitution are to be disregarded and destroyed... It matters little to our people whether that is done by open rebellion under the lead of Jefferson Davis, or by the arbitrator use of usurped power under the direction of Abraham Lincoln."

Pierce was the first president to maintain his entire cabinet through his term. He was the first president to not be re-nominated by the party after being elected. He was the first to lose all of his children. Pierce was the youngest Senator at age 31, and the youngest President of his time at age 48. Based on Mr. Wallner's research, I believe Pierce may be the first President to be a born-again Christian. After presidency, he wanted to be baptized in the Episcopal Church. His struggles with attending church were the result of Methodist and Congregationalist preachers preaching Abolition from the pulpit. Before being baptized, Pierce acknowledged his sin and need of forgiveness.

September 19, 2023 - #13 Millard Fillmore

The many one-term presidents between Jackson and Lincoln take the blame for the Civil War, as if they could have prevented it. This is not the case at all if you study their lives in this perspective. Born in 1800 from New York, Fillmore was mostly a self-taught man like most in those days. He was a Whig but did not always follow their paths. He made no statements against slavery through his early politics. This put him at odds with abolitionists and anti-slavery New Yorker's. (These factions started forming in the 1830s and were different from one another.) Fillmore believed the constitution gave this power only to the states (as it did) and there was nothing Congress could do with it.

Fillmore became president when Zachary Taylor died in office in 1850. This was while the Compromise of 1850 was still called the Omnibus Bill. Fillmore's first success was to kill the bill which allowed it to become individual compromises. After the Compromise of 1850 was signed into law, Fillmore was a supporter of it. His NY rivals,Thurlow Weed and William Seward did not, and this posed a war in NY state politics between them.

His most controversial act was following The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 which strengthened the current law. Fillmore was hell bent on enforcing it. He even proposed a federal police force (if you will) to help Southerners find runaway slaves even if states did not want to assist. This put northerners in the camp of "state's rights activists" since re-captured slaves had no right of trial by jury. But this also paid large dividends to the South.

His wife Abigail would be with him in DC in which the first presidential library was made in the White House. They had a daughter and son. Abigail would die right after the election of 1852. She got sick after attending the Inauguration of Franklin Pierce.

Fillmore deserves great respect for his sacrifice to the good of the Union. While the U.S. was swamped in division, he worked tirelessly through his life to keep the Union together and his people united. He was not the typical power-hungry, old, white man. He would give up credit for anything if it meant harmony within the party and country. He wanted the Union remain strong. Sectional and decisive politics win votes, but not without a cost. Fillmore had more integrity in that area. In the end, the Compromise of 1850 and efforts by Thurlow Weed split the Whig party and formed the National Republican party. Fillmore believed the Republicans were too strong and pushing the South to war. He had a great understanding of people and their slowness to change. In that way, he was a statesman. Fillmore definitely slowed down the push to civil war. That's all you could hope for in those days.

July 30, 2023 - #12 Zachary Taylor

Zachary Taylor, nicknamed “Old Rough and Ready”, was born in Orange County Virginia but lived from his early years in Kentucky. Although not highly educated, he became wealthy, owned several plantations, and was a slaveholder. His life was his military service and his plantation. He spent 13 years in the old Northwest making it safe for settlers.

He married Margaret “Peggy” Smith in 1810. They moved across the frontier following Taylor's military postings. She never wanted him to be president. They had six children. One story I find interesting is that Taylor never wanted his daughters to marry a soldier. One daughter, Sarah, met a soldier from Mississippi and wanted to marry him. The soldier new Taylor did not want him to marry Sarah, though they still courted. Nonetheless, Sarah and him would marry at his family's plantation in MS. (This was Sarah's decision because no one from that area went South in the summer.) Three months later, this new married couple came down with Malaria. He and Sarah stayed in separate rooms  until she died. His name was Jefferson Davis, who would become Senator from MS, Secretary of War under Pierce and President of the Confederate States. 

Taylor fought in the War of 1812, but was never in any significant battles. He defended Fort Harrison from Tecumseh in 1812. Taylor campaigned under General Henry Atkinson to fight Chief Black Hawk's forces. The end of the war in 1832 ended Indian resistance to U.S. expansion in that area. Taylor earned his nickname “Old Rough and Ready” during the Second Seminole War in 1837. They fought a difficult but short war in Southern Florida swamps and everglades.

Taylor's military fame came when he commanded the “Army of Observation” which initiated war with Mexico in 1846. He led his troops to victory in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterrey, and Buena Vista. His success made him very popular with the American people. Taylor soldiers admired him as he was very unassuming. He never wore his uniform correctly, looked thrown-away sometimes. But still a gentleman. The politics of the war made put him at odds with General Winfield Scott, who was awarded by Polk General of the entire Army making Taylor his subordinate. There were many notable soldiers who fought in the Mexican - American War: Braxton Bragg, Jefferson Davis, Ulysses S. Grant, Stonewall Jackson, Joseph Jonston, George Meade, Robert E. Lee, and Franklin Pierce.

Taylor could care less about politics but he finally succumbed to being nominated as a Whig by a group of party leaders as a condition to the presidential nomination. When he identified himself as a Whig in a lengthy letter, he was careful to note that he would consider himself a president of the people and would not mindlessly follow a party line. He then defeated the Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass, making Taylor the second Whig to be president.

Though Taylor was a slaveholder, and identified with the South, he was a strong Unionist like Jackson. Taylor did not support the extension of slavery although he had no intention of abolishing it in the states where it already existed. Taylor supported admission California and New Mexico as free states. With the upcoming admission of California as a free state, Henry Clay led Congress into a series of compromises to placate the South, including a strong Fugitive Slave Law. What became the compromise of 1850 occurred after Taylor's death.

Washington D.C. had long been a place of poor sanitation. Wells were not deep, water did not drain, there were lots of animals and sewage problems. On July 4, 1850, Taylor ate certain fruit and foods that people believe led to his stomach illness. Interestingly, other legislators were sick during this time as well. Taylor seemed to get better before getting worse. It turned into gastrointeritis, and he died 5 days later at age 65.

Taylor's administration had one achievement in foreign policy, the Bulwer-Lytton treaty with Britain which contemplated joint American-British control of a canal to be built through Central American. This joint project was never realized, but the treaty possibly prevented a war. Franklin Pierce would deal with this later.

Personally, I believe Taylor would have been a great president due to his independence. Like John Quincy Adams, Taylor took it serious to be a president for an entire nation and not for a political interest group. Might Taylor have been the last president with the opportunity to avoid the Civil War? I don't think so. He did not have the gift of politics and people maneuvering. The Compromise of 1850, which Taylor had nothing to do with, pushed the Civil War out further. Ultimately, Zachary Taylor's presidency showed the virtues of purpose, nationalism and unity.

June 16, 2023 - #11 James K. Polk

President Polk, also known as “Young Hickory.” Polk fell between many other unknown presidents from Jackson to Lincoln. His presidency may be the MOST SUCCESSFUL of any U.S. president. An independent national bank, the revenue based tariff, finalize Texas, take California and New Mexico, Polk's goals. Polk also made clear he would not run for a second term.

At age 17, Polk suffered from either bladder or urinary stones. His father took him to a doctor in Pennsylvania where he had some type of surgery to help him. How they did it, I do not know. But it worked. Polk ended up in Columbia, TN and met Sarah Childress of Murfreesboro. Sarah called Andrew Jackson and Rachel Donelson Aunt and Uncle. Jackson encouraged Polk to marry Sarah. Sarah agreed to marry, but only if Polk won a political office.

Polk started in the Tennessee state legislature in 1823. He later became Governor of Tennessee, but lost as an incumbent due to the changing political landscape of a new frontier state. Polk like Lincoln actually lost many elections in his younger years.

How did Polk became the first Dark Horse President in 1844? Martin Van Buren was the leading candidate for the Democats before the Baltimore convention. Then on April 20th, he wrote a letter to Congressman W.H. Hammet of MS stating that the U.S. SHOULD NOT annex Texas. Henry Clay (Whig nominee) came out the same day with a letter representing the same stand. (Historians believe this was arranged by them.) This separated Jackson, still de-facto Democrat Party leader, who began his work to get Polk into the nomination for VP and covertly for 1st place if the convention hit a deadlock. 

When the Democratic Convention opened, it adopted the ⅔ rule for nominations. Van Buren would now be out. Without it, VB would have been nominated. James Buchanan, Lewis Cass and VB did not get the 178 votes needed. Overnight PA and MA delegations introduced Polk's name. Polk drew 44 votes on the 8th ballot, but before 9th, NY delegation retired for consultation. Then Benjamin Butler read the letter from the floor of withdrawal from Van Buren. The convention then gave its unanimous support for Polk.

The country wanted to move west and Polk knew it. Polk would still not be elected if it was not for the state of New York, and the third-party (Free Soil Party) taking enough votes for Polk to win New York, which won him the election. He had a history of a political background, and was very smart, but in another sense he was a Dark Horse.

The first photograph of a President's cabinet was taken by John Plumblee Jr. in 1846. Front Row L - R: Attorney General John Jason, Secretary of War William Marcey, President Polk, Secretary of Treasury Robert Walker. Back L - R: Post-Master General Cave Johnson, Secretary of Navy George Bancroft.

The Mexican War (1846 - 1847) began when Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande and beyond to a contested boundary with Mexico. Once Santa Anna's troops crossed the contested boundary and killed some of Taylor's troops, Polk approached Congress with not a declaration of war, but more of an acknowledgement of war with his cry, “American troops on American soil.” The war was overwhelmingly voted by congress and the senate. After its manipulative declaration, legislators became divided over the war.

During the Mexican War, Polk endured serious drama with his Generals. They were winning the war, receiving accolades, but were all Whigs.  Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott were becoming house-hold names. So Polk sent this guy named Gideon Pillow to lead parts of the war. During the war, Polk also managed John Fremont (Thomas Hart Benton's son-in-law), General Kearny and others to acquire California and New Mexico.  Information did not travel fast and Polk did not trust certain people. So he would basically give instructions to two different people, hoping that the job would get done. But sometimes those people would cross up with one another.

When I think of Polk, I think of a middle-aged, younger man with a business mindset. He achieve his goals, because he worked hard with his cabinet and generals in the field to accomplish it. Under his administration, the U.S. completed its largest land-grab since the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Polk is consistently rated in the top 10 American Presidents' establishment historian because of his accomplished goals.

I would also put Sarah Polk as one of the better first ladies. She supported her husband and his political career. Polk died of cholera in 1849, months after leaving office. I respect her for living the rest of her life to maintain his memory since his death came not long after his time in office was up. My favorite thing about her is when a lady said that they should vote for Henry Clay because his wife would keep house, Sarah responded, “If I should so be fortunate as to reach the White House,… I will need to keep house nor make butter.” And that she did.

May 21, 2023 -  #10 John Tyler

John Tyler is the first president to become president when the former president died. There are many reasons why I like John Tyler. Called the “Accidental President” became the “president without a party” all because the Whigs stole the persona of “The Common Man” for the campaign for William Henry Harrison and John Tyler. Ironically, both were Virginia slave owning, aristocrats and nothing like the ‘common man’ Andrew Jackson. After William Henry Harrison was elected, he told Henry Clay, “Remember Mr. Clay I am the president.”

Tyler knew Harrison was about to pass away. Who would become president? The Constitution did not make this clear. Tyler spoke to cabinet members and essentially worked it out where he would be assumed president. Tyler had been placed on the Whig ticket as part of a horse-trade in VA to get William Rives into the Senate. Rives was elected by Democrats but joined the Whigs in Congress. Tyler was elected by Whigs and rejoined the Democrats. Neither Harrison or Tyler were very good Whigs, which became the demise of their party.

Tyler‘s presidency was impactful to America. The annexation of Texas belongs to President Tyler. After his party left him, he became a lame duck. This fueled him to press for Texas, thought politicians were divided over the issue due to slavery. Even better than Texas, Tyler really pissed off Henry Clay by vetoing the Whigs attempt at another central bank for the United States. After winning their first election with Harrison, Clay wanted to initiate his agenda of internal improvements which of course meant an evil central bank.

John Tyler developed a pacific foreign policy, acknowledged Hawaii as an independent republic, and became the first administration to support missionaries in foreign nations.

Tyler, like Thomas Jefferson, had a very skeptical view of Great Britain. And that he should. This also drove the annexation of Texas. Somebody powerful was eventually going to have control of Texas, and Tyler wanted to make sure it was the US. He is the most responsible for the annexation. It’s story is it’s own tragedy. Secretary of State Abel P. Upsher had the votes for the 2/3 majority in the Senate for annexation. On February 28, 1844, he was killed by an explosion of the great gun “peacemaker” aboard the U.S.S. Princeton. John Tyler had to start all over on Texas. This is where Tyler employed the joint resolution in Congress. This allowed a simple majority to annex Texas, which was not actually signed until President Polk was in office. This, however, was not constitutional. At this time, Tyler, like anyone in his position of power, used whatever they could to get the job done. The joint resolution was a major precedent moving forward.

Daniel Webster was the only cabinet member of Harrison to remain with John Tyler. Tyler respected him and they worked together very well. Tyler died during the War Between the States as a member of the Confederate Congress, though he did not live to one session. He and Julia strongly supported the South. There was no recognition of Tyler at his passing other than being called ‘traitor to the Union.’

April 5, 2023 - #9 William Henry Harrison

The president who only lived one month after being sworn into office. I believe a lot of American history changed when William Henry Harrison died in office of pneumonia.

Benjamin Harrison V signed the Declaration of Independence. This was William Henry Harrison's father. Harrison was the Andrew Jackson to the Shawnee. In the campaign against the Indians, Harrison served as aide-de-camp to General “Mad Anthony” Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, which opened most of the Ohio area to settlement. He later became first governor of the Indiana Territory and served 12 years. Harrison became famous after the Battle of Tippecanoe against the Shawnee. It not being fortified reduced their ability to fight back. It’s also important to know the history of the Shawnee, Tipsquawa, Tucumseh and the British-Indian alliance in the Ohio area to understand to give creide to Harrison's job governing the land and dealing with the Indians. Harrison and Tecumseh were like Tom Brady and Ray Lewis. I have nothing but respect for Tecumseh who would not give up Shawnee land to white settlers. This period in history during the War of 1812 is a remarkable time.

Harrison was the perfect War Hero for the Whigs ticket in 1840. After the panic of 1837, the Whigs put together the first known parades, rallies, appearances by the candidates and a well-known slogan, “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too” to help get Harrison elected. “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” was another slogan that shaped the future campaigns. Ironically, Harrison was too born in Virginia and not representing of the ‘common man’ slogan. The Whigs copied Van Buren and Jackson's campaign and it worked. Harrison would be chosen over their de facto leaders, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.

Harrison was not the greatest Whig himself. After Clay came to discuss with Harrison Whig policy and his forced agenda, Harrison said, “Remember Mr. Clay, I am the President.” Had Harrison lived, I think he would have been a great president. I do not know where he stood on the bank or internal improvements. But his life makes me think he would have been great. His death for pneumonia a month after taking oath ended the Whigs. John Tyler was even less a Whig than Harrison which pretty much sealed their demise.

An interesting fact is he and his wife Anna Harrison had 10 children. Anna would never make it to the White House to be the first lady before Harrison died. She stayed at their home for his funeral. Sadly all of their children died except one boy. Many of his children's death occurred in their 20s and 30s. Anna was left with this one child, John Scott Harrison, who served in the House of Representatives under the Pierce Presidency and was the father of Benjamin Harrison, our 23rd president.

January 16, 2013 - #7 Andrew Jackson

I read Jackson's biography 10 years before I started this endeavor on presidential biographies. Jackson is both simple and complicated at the same time. His personality ultimately became the course of his life and his presidency. His presidency transformed the system in which campaigning and candidate promotion occurred. His life is one of the most tumultuous lives in our history.

Born a decedent of Scotts-Irish, his father came to American from the Ulster Scott region. His dad died as a young child. During the Revolution, Jackson and is brother were captured by British soldiers where Jackson was told to polish the soldier's shoes. Jackson said no, and the soldier swung his sword and Jackson's head, but Jackson used his hands to block it. The sword was also swung at his brother's head and hit him. Jackson's mother retrieved the boys, but Jackson's brother died of the infection. Jackson's mother helped Revolutionary soldiers and in another prisoner exchange for her nephew or other family, she got Cholera and died. By the age of 14, Andrew Jackson was an orphan thanks to the British.

He was then raised by other family members, studied law, and in 1788 moved to Nashville. Jackson boarded with the widow of Col. John Donelson and met his youngest daughter Rachel, age 21. She had been in a difficult marriage and was under the false impression that he obtained a divorce in Virginia, which he had not. Andrew and Rachel married not knowing this, and later had to be re-married. This would haunt them for the rest of their lives.

Jackson emerged with the TN political establishment through his affiliation with leading families and his legal profession. He became TN first congressman in 1796 and two years later senator. He later retired of Washington and served as a judge on TN Superior Court.

One amazing story involved two of the first families to settle in Tennessee, Russell Bean. His older brother Jesse was a gunsmith. Russell traveled to New Orleans to deliver handmade guns and stayed for 2 years getting involved in bad things. When he came back, his wife was nursing a new child. In an angry fit, he cut off the babies ears to brand it as not his child. Russell was imprisoned, fined and branded on his wrist. But he bit off the brand, and escaped from jail threatening to kill the man who seduced his wife. Russell beat the man's brother when it came to the attention of a young judge. The Judge told the Sheriff to serve the arrest warrant. The Sheriff tried to get Russell and failed and could not get a volunteer posse to go after him. So, the judge said, “By the Eternal, I'll bring him.” Drunk Russell vowed to “shoot the first skunk that came within 10 feet of him”, but the judge never flinched. With a pistol in each hand, he walked right up to him and said, “Now, surrender you infernal villain…. or I'll blow you through!” Russell Bean surrendered and was marched to the courtroom. The Judge was Andrew Jackson. When Bean was later asked why he gave us so easily, he said that when he looked into Jackson's eyes, he saw fire.

 In 1802, Jackson was elected as major general of the TN militia at age 35. Jackson also got into duels: John Seville (Leader of the Battle of Kings Mountain), Charles Dickinson and Thomas Hart Benton's brother. The duel with Seville ended up not happening as Seville's carriage left when they thought Jackson (age 21) did not show up. A few years later, the supposedly the best shot in TN did not end well for Dickinson. The duel happened over an argument about a horse race, but went deeper since Dickinson implied that Rachel was a bigamist. Jackson took the hit and then shot Dickinson dead. The bullet stayed in Jackson's chest until he died. In 1813, Jackson took a bullet from Thomas Hart Benton's brother after insulting Benton after Benton insulted Jackson (age 46). The slug went in his arm and doctors wanted to cut his arm off. Jackson would not let them and laid in a sickbed bleeding through two mattresses. The man Jackson canned would later become a powerful senator from Missouri who supported Jackson's policies. When the bullet was removed in 1832, Jackson was president. It was rumored that Jackson offered the bullet back to Benton, which he declined.

While Jackson was bleeding through his sickbed, it was during the War of 1812, in August 1813 Creek Indians under Chief Red Eagle attacked Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 settlers including women and children. Jackson, along with Davy Crockett and Sam Houston hunted and attacked the “Red Stick” Creeks until William Weatherford (Chief Red Eagle) surrendered to Jackson in his camp. “I am not afraid of you. I fear no man, for I am a Creek warrior…You may kill me if you wish.” Jackson replied, “Any man who would kill as brave a man as this would rob the dead.”

Jackson rose to fame after the Battle of New Orleans in January of 1815. Many of his men left after fighting the Creeks. They were starved and fatigued to the bone. Knowing the British would soon attack NO to secure the lifeline of the west, the Mississippi River, Jackson took what was left through the swamps to New Orleans. Tennessee Volunteers, Kentucky Sharpshooters, Louisiana Militia joined Creoles, Frenchmen, a local groups o Pirates and free blacks in a defensive position to fight 8,000 British troops under Edward Pakenham. Not knowing the Treaty of Ghent was signed in December, ending the War of 1812, Jackson demolished the British killing 2,000 and only losing 8 of his 5,700 men. No better way to get back the tyrants who killed his family a generation before.

Jackson was the hero of America. The War of 1812 was like a Coach Richt Georgia team. They tried to lose. Though it was technically over, the Battle of New Orleans meant the Americans truly owned the British. After the Revolution, the British continued depredations of American through sailor impresment and funding Indian raids. After this, Jackson got with rich plantation owners who moved from Georgia toward Mississippi in land speculation. Jackson profited off this, which enraged frontiersman Davy Crockett.

Jackson was then ordered by the Monroe administration to attack Seminoles who had attacked and killed settlers over the Florida line. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams introduced the idea that since Spain had a treaty with us that Georgia would be protected from Indian attacks, the U.S. had the right to attack into Florida. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun was the only one to disagree, and Monroe sent Jackson to Florida f$*k their s^!t up. And he did.

Calhoun and Henry Clay did not like it when Jackson came to D.C. for a popularity show. But they had to act like they cared when thousands showed up to see him in person. This became his rise to the presidential nomination in 1824. The problem was there were many on the ballot and no political parities. Jackson won the popular vote and electoral college, but did not hit the constitutional number of electorates it required. The election was sent to Congress. Though Jackson won Kentucky, Clay's state, John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay made the “corrupt bargain” where Clay would become Adams' Secretary of State if Kentucky's electorate went to Adams. That is how the 1824 election was stolen from Jackson.

Jackson had the popularity and Martin Van Buren had the organization. The Democratic party was created and Jackson spent the next four years attacks Adams' inability to connect with the people. Thanks to his popularity and the Tarrif of Abominations, Jackson won even bigger in 1828 to become the first president outside of the Aristocracy and first self made man to reach this pinnacle. As a Scott-Irish decedent from the Celtics to William Wallace's (Bravehart) to Robert the Bruce, and so on, Jackson was born fighting. And now in his presidency, he would fight greater fights for the American people against names like John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay and Nicholas Biddle for the next 8 years.

March 13, 2023 - #8 Martin Van Buren

“The Red Fox of Kinderhook” or “The Great Magician” was the first president to be born as a US citizen (1782), not in a British colony and our first ethnic president (Dutch). Van Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York. He was raised in a tavern and grew up listening to all the gossip and politics from the wave of speculators that came through. As a lawyer, he was influenced by the Jeffersonians. He rose to Congress and became a rival with DeWitt Clinton. He married Hannah Hoes which we know little about. She dies in 1819 and leaves VB with four boys.

Much of Van Buren's negative judgment comes from the Panic of 1837, which was out of his control. But what really caused it? This is where the established historians fail to judge based on human action (Ludwig Von Mises) and motive. Out of the Panic of 1819 came the Jacksonian movement - men like Jackson, Thomas Hart Benton, James K. Polk were all converted to hard money and 100-percent reserve banking. During the War of 1812, America fell into a one-party system in which the Democratic-Republicans adopted the Federalist program re-establishing the Bank of the US. This lead to Van Buren's greatest political accomplishment, the creation of the Democratic Party.

Van Buren was a political whiz with a great rapport to the South. A mastermind for organization, he took Jackson's tantrums and turned them into policy. Van Buren sought to impose order upon a very disorganized political system. He built alliances and emphasized the need for a disciplined platform. He organized the party's message. Once Jackson was elected in 1828, Van Buren became his Secretary of State. The banking crisis started right after Jackson denounced the Second Bank in his first annual message which brought the showdown between he and Nicholas Biddle (Bank's President). This was also pushed by Henry Clay in a effort to get the recharter sooner and bring Jackson down.

Jackson survives the showdown after vetoing the new bill and Congress failed to pass it over his veto. He then wins re-election in 1832. Van Buren became closer to Jackson through the Petty Coat Affair, as he treated Peggy Eaton with respect. The divided cabinet left Van Buren to become his VP.  Jackson's popularity walks Van Buren into the president seat in 1836.

But nothing of his doing will reverse the worst economic downturn in the US to this date, the Panic of 1837. Mass unemployment, bankruptcies and starving families led everyone to blame the destruction of the Bank of the US and shifting government funds to the may “pet banks.” But when looking at insanely reckless inflation from the Bank, the conclusion to blame is much different. During the 1819 Depression, the Bank of the US increased its notes and deposits 5.9 % (1820 - 1823). The nation's total money supply remained about the same. Once Nicholas Biddle took over, the Bank's notes and deposits rose from $12 million to $42.1 million, 27%. As a consequence of this, the total money supply rose at an annual increase of 10.2 %. The Bank of the US under Biddle was clearly on the inflationary.

What about the wholesale price rise of 52% from 1834 to 1837? It turns out, the wholesale prices rose before this as well, 20% from 1830 - 1833. The reason the price rose is because the money supply rose from $109 million to $159 million in the same years, 46%. Insane! Both price and money inflation was all spurred by the Bank of the US, still in operation. What about after 1833?

Same nonsense. The total money supply rose from 21% per year from 1834 - 1837, $150 million to $267 million.

This was not caused by liberated state banks. If state banks used their freedom to pyramid on top of specie, their pyramid ration would have risen risen or conversely, their reserve ratio of specie to notes and deposits would have fallen. Their reserve ratio was 0.16 in 1837 meaning they did no more pyramiding following the demise of the Bank than they had done before. This absolves the Jackson administration from blame of the 1833 - 37 inflation.

This is the power of the central bank that is so dangerous to the freedom and standard of living of its people. Biddle threatened to suspend specie payments, contract the loans if Jackson vetoed the bank. Van Buren called a special session of Congress where he proposed an independent treasury where all government money would be deposited and be out of the banks, unable to create easy credit, speculation and inflated land prices. The Senate passed it, but the House did not thanks to a group of ‘soft money’ Democrats led by Nathan Tallmage of NY and William Rives of VA.

February 22, 2023 - #6 John Quincy Adams

It is fitting to write this review on the anniversary of his death. I admit that I did not think I would like John Quincy Adams. He was the last of the Colonial Elite presidents, and the first son of John and Abagail Adams. He learned much from his father since he traveled with John to France during the Revolution at the age of 12. When John became sick with fever, John Quincy went by himself to Russia. This helped him become one of our greatest diplomats.

Though he was considered a Federalist, he was extremely independent minded. And he was that almost to a fault. Politically, his greatest downfall was that he did not campaign for himself. Adams believed that if a person was good enough for the job, then the voters should vote for them. There were no organized campaigns during this time regardless. But Louise did more to campaign for Adams that he did for himself.

As secretary of state under Monroe, I respect Adams for many of his positions which were contrary to most Federalists. Adams supported Monroe when he decided to send Andrew Jackson to Florida to fight Seminoles and runaway slaves that were killing Americans in Georgia. Adams wrote the response that Monroe delivered to Congress, which explained the treaty that we had with Spain. And that treaty would not allow anyone in their area to attack Americans outside of that area. That position was not popular where Adams came from.

His main issue was being ahead of his time, promoting internal improvements when American way of life remained small and simple. When he talked of Rome and quoted philosophers, he was over the head of the American public, and did not connect. Andrew Jackson made a mockery of Adams talk of concern for outter space when debtor prisons were full of people who were not criminals. Not to mention the “corrupt bargain” that Adams and Henry Clay created to steal the 1824 election from Andrew Jackson. Ultimately, the 1828 Tariff of abominations hurt Adams the most for reelection.

He was able to accomplish more outside of the presidency, however. After being elected to the House of Representatives, he brought in discussion against slavery. He helped the abolitionists position themselves as people for human rights as opposed to secessionists. This is where Southerners issued the Gag Rule, used against John Quincy. He gained support after being reelected into Congress. He continued to fight back and the Gag Rule taken out. As a member of Congress, Adams passed away during session on February 22, 1848.

No one outside of the Revolution served their country more than John Quincy Adams. There was great technology and advancement that happened during his service. Steamboats and also photograph, called daguerreotype. John Quincy Adams was the first president to be photographed. The picture below was believed to be taken in 1842. (His first photo was actually lost.)

January 1, 2023 - #5 James Monroe

My favorite of the first six presidents is probably not your first guess. He is the 4th of the Virginia Dynasty and 3rd of the Jefferson Dynasty, which I favor. I like James Monroe (1757 - 1831) because of the elite presidents, he was closest to the common man.

As a student at William and Mary, he protested against Virginia Governor, Lord Dunmore as he attempted to take the gun powder. Monroe marched a with the Don’t Tread on Me flag. He then fought in the Revolutionary War and was in the Battle of Trenton. At Trenton, Monroe was shot in the shoulder and bleeding on the street. A medic (if that is what they were called) saved his life, stopping his bleeding. He also survived Valley Forge.

He was a congressman, senator, governor of Virginia, US minister to France and Great Britain, secretary of state and secretary of war before becoming president. He and Robert Livingtson purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon (who basically stole it from Spain) in 1803.

Monroe served as Secretary of State under James Madison. The War of 1812 began as a disaster but ended well because of men like William Henry Harrison (Indiana Territory), Andrew Jackson (New Orleans), Oliver Hazard Perry (Lake Erie) and James Monroe (Washington D.C.). The British burned DC after the Secretary of War said the they would not attack DC. Monroe took over as Secretary of War while James and Dolley Madison fled the president's house (not yet called The White House).

Monroe's respect for Washington led him to emulate his administration after Washington’s. He must have loved Washington since Washington allowed Monroe to be blamed for the failure of the Jay Treaty. Unlike Washington, Monroe never put down a rebellion or take any sides with any Federalists. On the contrary, Monroe was the first president since Washington to travel the country in a political effort to see the people. As a matter of fact, Monroe would have been unanimously elected president, just as Washington was, if it was not for an elector who voted against him for the very reason that ‘only Washington deserved the unanimous vote.’

My favorite part of Monroe's presidency was something less known. During his time, Spanish controlled Florida. Rebel slaves and Seminole Indians would come into Georgia and attack and kill settlers. Monroe ordered Andrew Jackson into Florida to put a stop to this. Technically, Monroe needed congressional approval. He did not do this which made adversaries angry. Brilliantly, Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams decided that since Spain was under Treaty to protect the US from Indians and runaway slaves, they were not upholding their treaty and therefore, no declaration of war was necessary. Andrew Jackson took care of business and increased his hero status. It was John Quincy who wrote Monroe's (state of the union) address to congress in which he told the story of a family that Sequoia's men murdered by grabbing the feet of their toddlers and banging their heads into the side of their boat.

It was also John Quincy who authored the “Monroe Doctrine”. The US became prosperous under Monroe and greatly expanded its territory. And Monroe died owning almost nothing, living in his sisters home in New York after he sold his home and plantation to pay his debts that the U. S. owed him. He was mentored by every president before him. Only John Quincy Adams would have been more qualified to be president.

December 8, 2022 - #4 James Madison

After the Revolution, we needed a government. Jefferson, Adams and Franklin were in Europe while younger minds like Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison were deciding what our government would be. James Madison was insanely intelligent and a great thinker. He was devoted to the the cause of liberty almost to a fault of his own life. He finally got married and definitely married up to a wonderful girl named Dolley. James was gifted in his ability to deal with people. His wisdom was in his patience. Certainly he had his own ideas of what the rule of law should be. In working with people, other ideas will surface. He did a great job of communicating, being patient and convincing others of his ideas. During the Constitutional Convention, one of the few persuasions he lost was representation by population. This was a good thing in the end, since cities would eventually control the country. Back then, Virginia was the most populated state and would remain that way until New York took its place in the 1820s.

If there is one credit that should be added to accounts of his presidency, the Republicans survived the War of 1812 thanks to Andrew Jackson beating the British in the battle of New Orleans. Otherwise DC did not handle the war well. The most famous story being as the British moved onto DC, the cabinet and those in the President's house had to flee on horses. Dolley and James were separated during this fiasco. And it was Dolley, not James, who retrieved Washington's famous portrait from the wall so it could not be burned. James Monroe took over as Secretary of War during this time as Armstrong said there was no way they would come to DC from Baltimore. Ha!

No matter how it happened, the Second Revolution was most likely inevitable and assured we were treated as independent, not just as an idea signed on a piece of paper. The Constitution (Fathered by this man) enabled it and the War of 1812 solidified it.

October 4, 2022 - #3 Thomas Jefferson

The father of the idea of individual liberty, he was 33 years old when he wrote the Declaration of Independence. Governor of Virginia, Secretary of State, Vice President, 3rd US President, founder of University of Virginia, Jefferson was human. He loved states rights, but he did not want to let go of the Union. He did not believe the Bible, yet was one of the greatest advocates of religious liberty. He hated slavery, but did not want to let go of his own. He despised public debt, but lived a personal life of debt. He didn't like the power of the executive branch but would use the power of his knowledge and influence to accomplish what he believed right.

Jefferson's ideas of government were rooted in his belief of the people. When given the chance to decide, people will do the best for themselves. The opposing idea that people are incapable of making good decisions for themselves and ultimately need a higher power to tell them how to do so is the most immoral of ideas and places governing authorities in the place of God.

He was 33 during the Revolution and lost 3 of his 6 children and wife Martha before leaving for France. While in France, he lost his 4th child to “wooping cough.” His relationship with John and Abigail Adams was unique. He and John were friends during the Revolution but became enemies during Washington's administration as the two parties formed.

Jefferson's presidency would endure great tests. Our country was young and not respected in the world. There were things Washington, Adams and Jefferson did that was stictly against the Constitution. It was a different time; Congress and Senate were not around. The government is a faction, and it was a new faction. Britian impressed our sailors to fight their war again Napoleon, pirates of Tripoli showed no respect to our seamen, and Britain gave weapons to Indians to slow western migration. Our government was tested through his administration and not only survived, but became stronger. Evan after the Embargo, Madison's huge win proved the public liked Jefferson's ideas after all. There is no president to have the influence on future presidents as Thomas Jefferson. Those who followed his principles and called themselves Jeffersonites were James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk and Franklin Pierce.

After Jefferson's presidency, but he and John corresponded more than their earlier years becoming good friends again. The great ending to the story is Jefferson and Adams dying on the same day of July 4th, 1826 just hours apart. When Adams died, his last words were, “Jefferson lives!” But in fact, Jefferson had died a few hours earlier at Monticello, both dying 50 years to the day of the birth of the nation they formed.

September 4, 2022 - #2 John Adams

If Jefferson was the pen, Washington was the sword, then Adams was the voice of the Revolution. This maybe my favorite presidential book by David McCullough. The detail is incredible thanks to the letters written by John and Abagail. Adams was short, opinionated and stubborn, not a way to make friends. But Adams' personality was also the reason his "words moved men in their seats" as Jefferson said. Without John Adams, there would have been no Independence. The strains the revolution had on his families life is worth respecting for this country's founding. John and Abigail saw the dead from the Battle of Lexingon and were in Boston as British cut their trade. They saw their best friends leave on the ship to Britain after Washington's troops deefeated the British in 1775. John stayed in France for seven years, and two of his songs and Nabbi went without a father for their childhood. Adams, Franklin and Jefferson were trying to get help from France in the war. Without France, America would not be independent.

As president, Adams was similar to Washington in his hatred for political parties. He loved his country. I personally don't believe he was influenced by the Britain Monarchs. True he disagreed with the French Revolution, but how do we know not for personal interest in his time spent there? My only reservation in making him my favorite president is the Alien and Sedition Acts. It was a Federalist Congress that initiated them, but Adams still signed off. And they may have only went after 12 people, but the principle is contrary everything they fought against as well as the U.S. rule of law.

If it was no for Alexander Hamilton, Adams would have won a second term. The drama in Washington's two administrations - where Adams was Vice President - was no different than politics today. Adams, Washington and Hamilton took to the Federalist side with a central bank and strong executive. Jefferson and Madison, Anti-Federalist, formed the Republican Party during this time. I appreciate how much Adams and Jefferson wrote each other after both presidencies were over and renewed their friendship.

Adams son Charles became an alcoholic and died. John and Abigail had to see Nabbi suffer to her death of breast cancer. John Quincy became a true statesman a generation later as John got to see him elected president in 1824 before he died July 4th, 1826.

April 25, 2022 - #1 George Washington

My doctor showed me a few biographies to read, ones I should have read a long time ago. I then decided I would read one of every president after he showed me this one by Ron Chernov. Today I finished this in-depth look of Georgia Washington's life. If you judge a man by all the characteristics a man should have, Washington meets all of them.

Long story short, everything about Washington can be summed up in two things:

1. A great Leader
2. A Patriot to America

BIOGRAPHIES

Washington: A Life by Ron Chernow

John Adams by David McCullough

Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power by Jon Meacham

James Madison: A Life Reconsidered by Lynne Cheney

The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and A Nation's Call to Greatness by Harlow Giles Unger

John Quincy Adams by Harlow Giles Unger

American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House by Jon Meacham

William Henry Harrison by Gail Collins (American President Series)

John Tyler, The Accidental President by Edward Crapol

Polk: The Man who Transformed America and the Presidency by Walter R. Borneman

Zachary Taylor by John S.D. Eisenhower (American President Series)

Millard Fillmore: Biography of a President by Robert J. Rayback

Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son by Peter Wallner

Franklin Pierce: A Martyr for the Union by Peter Wallner

President James Buchanan: A Biography by Phillip Shriver Klein

A. Lincoln by Ronald White Jr.

Andrew Johnson: A Biography by Hanns Trefoussee

The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses Grant in War and Peace by H.W. Brands

Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President by Ari Hoogenboom

Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President by Candice Millard

The Unexpected President: The Life and Times of Chester A. Arthur by Scott S. Greenberger

A Man of Iron: The Turbulent Life and Improbable Presidency of Grover Cleveland by Troy Senik

Mr. President: A Life of Benjamin Harrison by Ray E. Boomhower

President McKinley: Architect of the American Century by Robert W. Merry

Mornings on Horseback by David McCullough

Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America by Douglas Brinkley

The Life and Times of William Howard Taft by Henry F. Pringle

Wilson by A. Scott Berg